I converted the following computer guide from Windows help 
format to plain text.  The resulting topic order sometimes does 
not follow the contents outline.  By searching and skimming, 
however, blind computer users may find much useful information.

Jamal Mazrui

----------

THE PC OWNER'S SURVIVAL GUIDE
A FREE RESOURCE FROM FIRST TRAIN FOR THE INTERNET, 
HTTP://WWW.FIRSTRAIN.COM


This guide is a sample of one of the supplemental resources 
included with First Train for the Internet, the complete Internet 
help resource for Windows wanderers.  The button opens the 
navigator window.  It contains a variety of information on a 
number of computing topics, some controversial, some rather tame, 
and is intended to help fill the holes in the knowledge of most 
novice to advanced intermediate computer users.  It was developed 
in response to the concerns, misinformation and questions our 
users, clients and friends have expressed.  Many features of this 
guide are limited or non-existent in this freeware release.  See 
the enclosed README file for information about redistributing 
this software.


 Contents
THE PC OWNER'S SURVIVAL GUIDE MAIN MENU                25
SURVIVAL GUIDE INFORMATION CENTER                      26
TIPS FOR USING PC OWNER'S SURVIVAL GUIDE               28
EXTENSION SOFTWARE                                     30
LICENSING INFORMATION                                  31
LICENSE TERM 1                                         34
A NOTE TO HELP AUTHORS                                 42
A DATA COMPRESSION PRIMER                              76
UNIVERSALLY USED AND UNIVERSALLY USEFUL                77
A COMPRESSION/ARCHIVING LEXICON                        79
HARD DISK COMPRESSION                                  82
DATA TRANSMISSION COMPRESSION                          85
GRAPHIC COMPRESSION                                    85
FILE COMPRESSION                                       88
EXECUTABLE COMPRESSION                                 90
USING DATA COMPRESSION SOFTWARE                        93
HOW DATA COMPRESSION PROGRAMS DO THEIR STUFF           94
DATA COMPRESSION SOFTWARE...WHO NEEDS IT?              96
THE LIMITS OF DATA COMPRESSION TECHNOLOGY              98
OTHER DATA COMPRESSION SCHEMES FOR THE PC              99
COPYRIGHTS AND RIGHTS OF USE                          101
BACK IT UP!                                           102
WHAT BACKUPS ARE WHY YOU NEED THEM                    103
WHY ARE BACKUPS SO IMPORTANT?                         104
DISKS AND DATA AREN'T DAMAGE-PROOF                    105
WHY IT PAYS TO HAVE A LOT OF DUPLICATE FILES          107
ARE THERE ANY SHORTCUTS YOU CAN TAKE?                 108
THE WHY'S AND HOW'S OF PRESERVING YOUR DATA           109
BACKUPS FROM THE DOS PERSPECTIVE                      110
MANUAL VERSUS AUTOMATED BACKUPS                       112
WHERE TO STORE BACKUPS                                115
WHAT YOU NEED FOR A PROPER BACKUP                     116
HOW MUCH ARE YOU PREPARED TO INVEST?                  118
THE THREE MOST COMMON TYPES OF BACKUPS                119
FULL BACKUP                                           120
INCREMENTAL BACKUP                                    121
PARTIAL BACKUP                                        123
EMERGENCY BACKUPS                                     125
COMPACT DISKS                                         127
WHAT TO BACK UP                                       129
DISASTER PREVENTION FOR WINDOWS                       132
WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT UNINSTALLERS              133
WINDOWS' SIMPLE LOOK IS DECEIVING                     134
WINDOWS 3.1/3.11 WON'T MAKE IT EASY FOR YOU           135
WHAT ABOUT THE WINDOWS 95 UNINSTALLER?                136
HOW DO UNINSTALLERS FOR WINDOWS WORK?                 138
TWO TYPES: WHICH TO CHOOSE?                           140
EMERGENCY BACKUP FOR WINDOWS                          142
EMERGENCY BACKUP FOR WINDOWS                          143
OUR OWN F-A-S-T EMERGENCY BACKUP                      144
COMPUTER AND WORKPLACE ERGONOMICS                     145
GENERAL INFORMATION                                   146
CREATING A USER-FRIENDLY WORKSPACE                    147
MONITOR-RELATED STRESSORS                             147
COMPUTER-RELATED EMISSIONS                            148
MEDICAL DISCLAIMER                                    149
PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES: WHY BOTHER AT ALL?              150
SEVEN AREAS OF STRESS MANAGEMENT                      155
REPETITIVE STRAIN INJURY (RSI)                        156
PREVENTING AND DEALING WITH RSIS                      159
KEYBOARD ERGONOMICS                                   161
WRIST RESTS                                           163
ELBOW RESTS                                           165
RELAXATION: THE BEST PREVENTION                       168
ALTERNATIVE INPUT DEVICES                             169
MOUSE ERGONOMICS                                      171
EFFECTS OF MONITOR STRESS                             174
ELIMINATING GLARE WITH FILTERS AND SCREENS            176
ELIMINATING GLARE WITH COMMON SENSE                   177
FLICKER: WHAT IT IS AND WHAT TO DO ABOUT IT           179
FLUORESCENT LIGHTING AND INTERFERENCE FLICKER         182
SCREEN SWAY                                           184
FLYBACK WEAR: A VERY SERIOUS PROBLEM                  186
SCREEN TYPE, SIZE AND DOT PITCH                       188
SCREEN RESOLUTION                                     192
SCREEN BRIGHTNESS                                     194
GAUGING YOUR LEVEL OF MONITOR STRESS                  195
COLOR YOUR (VIRTUAL) WORLD                            198
AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER-RELATED RADIATION         200
SCALAR-WAVE ELF EMISSIONS                             202
MEDICAL FOUNDATION FOR ELF SHIELDING                  204
REDUCED EMISSIONS AND ENERGY SAVINGS                  206
NOISE POLLUTION                                       208
MORE THAN YOU EVER WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT FLOPPY DISKS AND 
FORMATTING                                            210
THE PURPOSE OF FORMATTING                             211
THE FOUR COMMON IBM-COMPATIBLE DISK FORMATS           213
A LITTLE HISTORY                                      215
ABOUT SPECIAL FORMATS                                 219
TELLING THEM APART WITHOUT A PROGRAM                  221
ABOUT DISK STRETCHING                                 223
A VERY STERN WARNING                                  225
THE PC OWNER'S SURVIVAL  GUIDE PART 1: SERVICE AND SUPPORT226
A CONSUMER'S GUIDE TO AFTER-SALE SUPPORT              227
WHEN AND WHO TO CALL FOR HELP: A REFERENCE CARD FOR SERVICE AND 
SUPPORT                                               228
COMPUTER SUPPORT: AN INTRODUCTION                     229
COMPUTER SUPPORT: AN OVERVIEW                         232
LET THE BUYER BEWARE                                  233
THE CRUNCH: WHAT IT COSTS                             236
WHERE TO FIND THE RIGHT PEOPLE                        241
WHAT YOU CAN AND CAN'T EXPECT FROM YOUR SUPPORT PROFESSIONAL243
THE 'LOCAL HERO'                                      249
BULLETIN BOARDS, INTERNET AND ONLINE SERVICES         251
VENDOR PRODUCT SUPPORT LINES                          253
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE VENDORS                         254
PRIVATE TUTORS AND ON-SITE TROUBLESHOOTERS            255
CLASSROOM TRAINING                                    258
COMPUTER CLUBS AND SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS            259
LEARNING TO BE A TEACHER: HOW TO BRING A NOVICE UP TO SPEED 
PAINLESSLY                                            260
LEARNING TO BE A TEACHER                              261
TWELVE TIPS FOR SMOOTHING OUT THE LEARNING CURVE      264
SO YOU WANT TO COMPUTERIZE YOUR SMALL BUSINESS...     267
THE PC OWNER'S SURVIVAL GUIDE                         276
THE PC OWNER'S SURVIVAL GUIDE PART 2 SECTION 1: SYSTEM AND 
SOFTWARE MAINTENANCE                                  277
DO-IT-YOURSELF HARDWARE MAINTENANCE                   278
UPGRADES AND UPDATES                                  279
MAKING EMERGENCY START-UP BOOT DISKS (WINDOWS 3.1)    280
MAKING EMERGENCY START-UP BOOT DISKS (WINDOWS 95      282
CHECKING YOUR HARD DISK FOR ERRORS                    284
CMOS DATA AND BATTERY REPLACEMENT                     287
CLOCK BATTERIES: WHAT THEY ARE AND HOW TO REPLACE THEM290
DUST BUILDUP: WHAT TO DO...OR NOT DO                  292
CHIP CREEP: WHEN OLD CHIPS DECIDE TO WALK AWAY        294
BASIC FLOPPY DRIVE MAINTENANCE                        295
TAPE DRIVES, CDS AND BACKUP FLOPPIES                  296
PRINTERS: EASY TO PLEASE                              298
UPGRADING HOW-TO'S, WHEN-TO'S AND WHEN-NOT-TO'S       301
AN UPGRADING CHECKLIST                                304
RIGHT COMPUTING FOR THE 1990S AND BEYOND              306
LEGAL ISSUES REGARDING SOFTWARE AND COPYRIGHTS        307
SOFTWARE PUBLISHING: MARKETING OR TRAFFICKING?        309
LETTING GO OF THE JONESES                             310
RADIATION AND EMISSIONS PROTECTION                    311
VISUAL STRESS REDUCTION                               312
NOISE REDUCTION                                       313
GAS-OFF FROM NEW COMPUTERS                            315
RANDOM JOTTINGS (MENU)                                316
DOS 6.0'S BUGGY DISK COMPRESSION                      316
CLEANING OUT THOSE USELESS FILES                      317
HOW TO RECLAIM YOUR OWN TRASH                         323
RECLAIMING DOS MEMORY                                 325
BETTER SOUND WITHOUT BETTER SPEAKERS                  328
TWO TIMELESS WINDOWS TIPS                             330
IF DOS WON'T VERIFY YOUR DATA, WHO WILL?              332
TRANSFERRING OLD DATA TO NEW COMPUTERS                334
SILENCE IS GOLDEN, NOT NECESSARILY DEADLY             336
SURGE PROTECTORS: NO BEST-BEFORE DATES HERE           338
DID YOU KNOW...                                       340
THE VIRUS AWARENESS KIT                               341
FLAT TIRES AND BROKEN FANBELTS                        342
HOW SAFE IS THE INTERNET?                             344
TROJANS: A MUCH GREATER WORRY THAN VIRUSES            347
STEPS YOU CAN TAKE TO MINIMIZE THE RISK               348
A SEVEN-POINT BATTLE PLAN                             349
ANTIVIRUS SOFTWARE AND BACKUPS                        352
WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN ANTIVIRUS SOFTWARE                353
THREE FREE OR LOW-COST CHOICES FOR ANTIVIRUS SOFTWARE 355
THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING NEW AND IMPROVED              357
THE COMPUTER VIRUS MYTHS FILE                         359
COMPUTER VIRUS MYTHS                                  359
VIRUSES HAVE BEEN DOCUMENTED ON OVER 300,000 COMPUTERS (1988)368
BBSS AND SHAREWARE PROGRAMS SPREAD VIRUSES            372
ROBERT MORRIS JR.  RELEASED A BENIGN VIRUS ON A DEFENSE NETWORK.378
THE U.S. GOVERNMENT PLANTED A VIRUS IN IRAQI MILITARY COMPUTERS 
DURING THE GULF WAR.                                  381
ABOUT THE AUTHORS                                     390
VIRUS MYTHS: DEFINITIONS                              391
AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE (ASCII)400
ANONYMOUS FTP                                         401
ASHTON-TATE DBASE                                     402
BAUD                                                  403
BOOKMARK                                              404
BROWSER                                               405
BYTE INFORMATION EXCHANGE (BIX)                       406
CENTER FOR INNOVATIVE COMPUTER APPLICATIONS (CICA)    407
CLIENT                                                407
COMPUSERVE INFORMATION SYSTEMS                        408
CRACKER                                               409
DATA COMPRESSION                                      410
DOWNLOAD                                              412
ELECTRONIC MAIL (EMAIL)                               413
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)                          414
GENIE                                                 415
GIF                                                   416
GZIP                                                  417
HOST                                                  418
INTERNET RELAY CHAT (IRC)                             419
INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER                             420
JPEG                                                  421
LINK                                                  422
LINUX                                                 423
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)                              424
MAILING LIST                                          425
MNP                                                   426
MIRROR                                                427
MOSAIC                                                428
MULTIPURPOSE INTERNET MAIL EXTENSIONS (MIME)          429
NSA                                                   430
NETSCAPE                                              430
NETWORK                                               431
ONLINE                                                432
ONLINE SERVICE                                        433
PAGE                                                  434
PORT                                                  435
PNG                                                   436
POSTING                                               437
ROOT                                                  438
SEARCH ENGINE                                         439
SHELL ACCOUNT                                         440
SIGNATURE                                             441
SIMTEL                                                442
SITE                                                  443
LINE SURGE, SPIKE                                     444
SUN MICROSYSTEMS                                      445
SYSADMIN                                              446
SYSOP                                                 447
TERMINAL                                              448
TERMINAL EMULATOR                                     449
UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR                              450
URBAN LEGEND                                          451
USENET                                                452
V.XX                                                  452
WAREZ                                                 454
WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW OR W3)                            455
80X86                                                 456
ADAPTER                                               460
ADOBE TYPE MANAGER (ATM)                              461
ALGORITHM                                             462
AMIGA                                                 463
ANALOG                                                464
ANNOTATION                                            465
APPLE COMPUTERS                                       466
APPLICATION                                           467
ARCHIVE BIT                                           468
ATARI                                                 469
ATTRIBUTE                                             470
AUTOCAD, AUTODESK                                     471
AUTOEXEC                                              472
BACKUP                                                473
BIOS                                                  474
BATCH                                                 475
BATTERY (CMOS BATTERY)                                476
BORLAND                                               477
BUG                                                   478
BUNDLE                                                478
BYTE                                                  479
CACHE                                                 480
CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME (CTS)                          481
CRT                                                   482
CBM                                                   483
CPU                                                   484
CHIP                                                  485
CHIPSET                                               486
CHKDSK.EXE                                            487
CLONE                                                 488
CLUSTER                                               489
COLD BOOT                                             490
COMMODORE C-64                                        491
CD-ROM                                                492
CMOS                                                  493
CGA                                                   494
CONFIG.SYS                                            495
CONTROL PROGRAM FOR MICROCOMPUTERS (CP/M)             496
COPY PROTECTION                                       497
CRASH                                                 498
CREATIVE LABS, INC. SOUND BLASTER                     499
CRIPPLEWARE                                           500
CURSOR                                                500
CYLINDER                                              501
DATABASE                                              502
DEBUG                                                 503
DEFRAGMENT                                            504
DESKTOP                                               505
DESKTOP PUBLISHING (DTP)                              506
DEVICE DRIVER                                         507
DIGITAL                                               508
DOS                                                   509
DMF                                                   510
DOOM, WOLFENSTEIN                                     511
DOT MATRIX PRINTER                                    512
DOT PITCH                                             513
DOUBLE-DENSITY                                        514
DR-DOS                                                515
DIF                                                   516
EMULATOR, EMULATION                                   517
END USER                                              518
EGA                                                   519
ERGONOMICS                                            520
EXPANDED MEMORY (EMS)                                 521
EXTENDED GRAPHICS ARRAY (XGA)                         522
EXTENSION                                             522
EXTRACT                                               523
ELF                                                   524
FACSIMILE (FAX)                                       525
FILE                                                  526
FLICKER                                               527
FONT                                                  528
FRONT END                                             529
GLITCH                                                530
HACK                                                  531
HARD DISK                                             532
HEAT SINK                                             533
HP                                                    534
HGC                                                   535
HOME PAGE                                             536
HOTSPOT                                               537
HUE, SHADE, TONE                                      538
HTTP                                                  539
IBM                                                   540
IBM-COMPATIBLE                                        541
ICON                                                  542
IMPORT                                                543
INKJET (BUBBLEJET)                                    544
INTEGRATE                                             544
INTEL                                                 545
INTERACTIVE                                           546
INTERFACE                                             547
INTERLACING                                           548
JAGGIES                                               549
JOYSTICK                                              550
JUMPER (SHUNT)                                        551
LAPTOP, NOTEBOOK, SUBNOTEBOOK                         552
LASER PRINTER                                         553
LAUNCH                                                554
LHA                                                   555
LICENSE                                               556
LED                                                   557
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)                          558
LOTUS                                                 559
APPLE MACINTOSH                                       560
MAINFRAME                                             561
MB                                                    562
MHZ                                                   563
MEMORY                                                564
MICROPROCESSOR                                        565
MS                                                    566
MODE                                                  566
MONOCHROME                                            567
MOTHERBOARD                                           568
MOTION PICTURES EXPERTS GROUP (MPEG)                  569
NORTON, PETER NORTON                                  570
NOVELL, NOVELL NETWARE                                571
NULL MODEM CABLE, NULLMODEM                           572
O/S                                                   573
OS/2                                                  574
OVERLAY                                               575
PACK, UNPACK                                          576
PARAMETER                                             577
PASTE                                                 578
PATCH                                                 579
PATH TYPES                                            580
PROFESSIONAL GRAPHICS ADAPTER,PIN GRID ARRAY          582
PIRACY                                                583
PIXEL                                                 584
PKZIP                                                 585
PROGRAM                                               586
PD                                                    587
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)                            588
README                                                589
REPETITIVE STRAIN INJURY (RSI)                        589
RESOLUTION                                            590
ROUTINE                                               591
SCREEN SAVER, SCREEN BLANKER                          592
SCRIPT                                                593
SECTOR                                                594
SELF-EXTRACTING ARCHIVE (SFX)                         595
SHAREWARE                                             596
SPREADSHEET                                           597
STACKER                                               598
SUPER VGA (SVGA)                                      599
SYSTEM CLOCK                                          600
SYSTEM.DAT, USER.DAT                                  601
TAPE BACKUP UNIT                                      602
TASK                                                  603
TASK SWITCHING                                        604
TERMINATE-STAY RESIDENT (TSR)                         605
TEXT EDITOR                                           606
TEXT FILE, ASCII FILE                                 607
TRACKBALL                                             608
TROJAN HORSE                                          609
UPGRADE, UPDATE                                       610
US ROBOTICS                                           611
UTILITY                                               611
UUCODE                                                612
VERSION, REVISION                                     613
VGA                                                   614
VAX                                                   615
VISICALC                                              616
WARM BOOT                                             617
WIZARD                                                618
WORDPERFECT                                           619
WORD PROCESSING                                       620
WORD PROCESSOR                                        621
WORKSTATION                                           622
WRITE-PROTECT                                         623
XBASE                                                 624
ESSENTIAL COMPUTING TERMS AND DEFINITIONS             625
WHAT ARE BITS, BYTES, KILOBYTES AND MEGABYTES?        627
WHAT IS MEMORY...EXACTLY?                             630
WHAT'S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A HARD DISK AND A FLOPPY DISK?633
WHAT ARE FORMAT AND FORMATTING?                       636
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOFTWARE AND PROGRAMS? 639
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DOS AND WINDOWS?       642
WHAT'S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FILES AND DIRECTORIES?  647
WHAT IS A SHELL?                                      651
WHAT IS A PATH?                                       653
WHAT ARE ZIP AND ARCHIVE FILES?                       658
INSTALL, UNINSTALL SETUP, AND CONFIGURE               661
WHAT'S A PROMPT?                                      662
WHAT'S A BOOT?                                        666
WHAT IS A MODEM?                                      669
WHAT IS UNIX?                                         672
WHAT IS A BBS (BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)?                674
WHAT ARE VIRUSES AND TROJAN HORSES?                   678
WHAT IS A HACKER?                                     681
WHAT ARE SIGS?                                        683


Survival Guide information center


This is by no means a definitive guide to working with your PC.  
Instead it's designed to fill the holes left by the manuals, help 
and advice you get from other sources and represents what we 
discovered most novice to intermediate-level users wanted to know 
about their computers.  Please keep that in mind...it's a 
supplement to, not a replacement for, your usual sources of 
information on computer-related subjects.
    Tips for making the most of the guide
    A note to Windows Help authors
    Who wrote this?
    "How did you do that?"
    Licensing and copyright information
Except where noted this work is the copyrighted property of 
Dynamic Living Media.  (Portions copyright  1996 Paul Arnote; 
 1994,1995 Blue Sky Software Corporation; LHA  1992 Yoshi.)  
First-person ("I", "me") statements contained in the text are the 
opinions of Cub Lea <cublea@cyberstore.ca>, one of the authors of 
this work, whose collected reports come under the Dynamic Living 
Media umbrella.  "We" statements reflect the editorial consensus 
of Dynamic Living Media.
Tips for using PC Owner's Survival Guide
Hidden hotspots


The first feature is provided to help you make sense of what 
you're doing.  PC Owner's Survival Guide is sprinkled with 
thousands of "hidden hotspots", words you may not fully 
understand which are important to understanding Internet and 
computing.  Hold your mouse cursor over any word you don't 
understand or want clarified and if it turns into a pointing 
finger, clicking the word will pop up its definition.  Try 
clicking the word "hotspot" anywhere you see it in this paragraph 
to see how this works.
The Find button


This special feature, activated by the button on the button bar, 
lets you track down any word or phrase in the Guide in a matter 
of seconds, but it does have one small bug.  If you have used the 
Supplementary Help Window or the Navigator window, the Find 
function stops working.  You can re-enable it by closing the 
guide and clicking Find again.  This feature also lets you print 
multiple topics in one pass and also copy information to the 
clipboard for pasting into other documents.  (Please respect 
copyrights when doing this.)
Right-click mouse menus


The second is that the guide includes a right-click pop-up menu 
designed to take you to each of its main section indices.  To see 
this menu now, click the right mouse button over the white 
section of this window.  (Unfortunately, due to limitations in 
Windows Help we were unable to expand these menus to include the 
sub-menus for each section.
The Survival Guide Navigator


Use the Navigator window for a complete on-demand menu of 
everything in the guide.  This button opens it from here, and you 
can also open it by clicking the Map button on the button bar.
Bookmarks and annotations


The third feature you'll find handy is bookmarking.  You can 
maintain a set of bookmarks for the Guide which will quickly take 
you to any topic or submenu you like at the click of a menu item.  
Try it...it will make finding a lot of useful points much easier 
once you begin to work seriously with the Internet.
Take notes!


That's what the Notes button on your button bar is for.  A few 
judicious notes can go a long way toward making life as a 
first-time Internet traveller a lot easier.  Only people with 
photographic memories are likely to remember everything they want 
to remember.  Unlike annotations, which work only for one topic 
at a time, this feature will allow you to collect your notes for 
all topics in the guide in a handy, single file.
Keep an eye on our Web site!
http://www.firstrain.com
Okay, so it's a plug, not a tip.  

Extension software
Some or all of the following Windows Help extension libraries and 
miscellaneous utilities may have been utilized in enhancing the 
look, feel and functionality of PC Owner's Survival Guide.  Check 
your installation directory to determine which of these files 
were used.  Note: The publisher reserves the right to alter this 
list without notice.
WINSIZE2.DLL and HLPUTIL2.DLL are copyright  1995 SINFIC SA.
EW256BMP.DLL is copyright  1994 Paul Arnote.
HLP_CTRL.DLL by Andrew Brundell is copyright  1995 Ninth Wave 
Software.
HYPRFIND.DLL is copyright  1995 Blue Sky Software.
WH3DV2.DLL is copyright  1995 Tom Gibson.
EPONCE.DLL is copyright  1994 Dr. Jim Methven.
WINSIZE2.DLL, HLP_CTRL.DLL, WH3DV2.DLL, WHPLUS.DLL and EPONCE.DLL 
are all freeware, but the files in this package may not be 
redistributed separately from this package due to copying 
restrictions imposed by several of the copyright holders.
See the documentation NOTEBOOK.WRI for information regarding 
Gregg Braun's NOTEBOOK.EXE.  It is freely distributable with 
other projects.
  



Copyright  1996 Dynamic Living Media(Portions copyright  1996 
Paul Arnote;  1994,1995 Blue Sky Software Corporation; LHA  1992 
Yoshi)Design, construction and authoring: Dynamic Living Media
Project coordinator: Cub Lea
Distributed by: Dynamic Living Media and Oasis Systems, Inc.
Email: cublea@cyberstore.ca, support@firstrain.com
Licensing information: sales@firstrain.com, (604)240-0506Support 
site: http://www.firstrain.com


Licensing information
Microsoft Windows  and Windows 95  are registered trademarks of 
Microsoft Corporation.  Dynamic Living Media is not affiliated in 
any way with Microsoft Corporation except as licensees and users 
of their products.  First Train for the Internet, Easy Windows 95 
Internet Step-up, The PC Owner's Survival Guide, F-A-S-T 
Emergency Windows Backup, Winsock Conflict Eraser and PC/Internet 
Lexicon are copyright  1996 Dynamic Living Media.  All files with 
..HLP extensions included in this archive are the copyrighted 
property of Dynamic Living Media except where noted or 
accredited.  Many of the DLLs and extensions used in this package 
are freely distributable; some are not.


    IMPORTANT NOTE:   If you do not agree to the terms of this 
                      license, do not use this software.

Information about the Windows Help extensions used in 
this product can be viewed at the topic linked to this help 
button.
Terms of your software license:
(Legalese with English subtitles; click the BACK or CONTENTS 
button when you've had enough)
     1. This license is limited to the terms and conditions 
described herein.  Its permissions extend for the life of the 
copyright holding to the work licensed.  Its prohibitions and 
restrictions extend for the life of the copyrighted work or two 
years following the release date of the software, whichever comes 
first, except where noted.
Plain English
     2. As a paid user you are permitted to install and use this 
file and all files accompanying it in the package or electronic 
datafile in which it was found, henceforth known as "software", 
for personal use on a single computer and to make one (1) copy of 
the distribution disks and two (2) copies of 
electronically-distributed software for archival backup only.  If 
two copies of the original software exist in your possession, at 
least one copy must be stored a minimum of one hundred meters 
from both the original and the first copy.
Plain English
     3. If you are not a paid, licensed user of this software, or 
you do not possess written permission for limited or unlimited 
personal use of this software without payment, or you are in 
possession of a copy of this software which has not been 
purchased through an authorized Dynamic Living Media distributor, 
retailer or company representative, then your possession of this 
document or any part of it is in violation of copyright.  You 
must erase this software and all copies of it in your possession 
from your computer immediately.  Distribution of the software in 
this package, except where explicitly stated in the software 
itself, without the expressed written consent of Dynamic Living 
Media is strictly prohibited and will be enforced.  Any act which 
consists of making this software publicly available via exchange 
of data in physical or electronic form may constitute criminal 
fraud.
Plain English
     4. No time limits are applied to the use of the software on 
the disks supplied with
your installation package except where noted in the documentation 
itself such as a disk labelled "freely copyable and shareable" or 
documentation which may have accompanied the software, such as a 
media review release, non-fee usage release for a non-profit 
organization authorized by Dynamic Living Media for no-cost use 
of the software, or other similar materials which may have been 
supplied with the package whether distributed in physical or 
electronic form.
Plain English
     5. All benefits, restrictions and prohibitions outlined in 
the license are transferrable.  The copyright holder reserves the 
right to deny transfer of license for any reason.
Plain English
     6. All restrictions on copying and distribution of the 
software become null and void two (2) years or seven-hundred 
thirty (730) days after the release date, at which time all 
software whose release date is greater than two (2) years old may 
be freely distributed under the terms of the copyright.  At this 
time acceptable shareware distribution principles are in effect; 
i.e. the software may not be sold but a fee may be charged to 
cover the cost of the media upon which it is distributed.  This 
condition applies to all software bearing the Dynamic Living 
Media copyright, either visibly or encoded as part of a binary 
file.  Disassembly of this software following the aforementioned 
period is acceptable but this applies exclusively to components 
of the software bearing the Dynamic Living Media copyright and 
not to any other parts of the software.  Right of disassembly for 
purposes of study are granted exclusively by the copyright 
holder.  All such requests must be made directly to the copyright 
holder.  Copyright laws regarding the content of the software 
remain in effect even after the expiry of distribution 
restrictions.
Plain English
     7. WARRANTY: The software is provided as operational and 
usable within the parameters described in the packaging, either 
electronic or physical, and requirements on all systems which 
fall within the standards listed on the package.  Neither Dynamic 
Living Media nor its agents or distributors shall be liable or 
responsible for the failure of this product to perform as 
advertised on equipment which does not strictly meet the criteria 
described on the package.  Distribution disks, tapes, cartridges 
and electronic archives are warranted against failure for a 
period of 30 days and in the case of physical media may be 
returned for repair or replacement before that period without 
charge.  Under no circumstances shall Dynamic Living Media, its 
agents or distributors be responsible for any inability to use 
this product as advertised due to nonstandard software or 
hardware configurations including but not limited to third-party 
menuing systems, system software and hardware.  If one or more of 
the disks in the set is faulty, or refuses to install within 30 
days, it/they may be returned to Dynamic Living Media for 
replacement.  Dynamic Living warrants only the integrity of 
software archives maintained on its own storage systems or the 
systems maintained by its agent(s) for the purpose of direct 
distribution, i.e. Dynamic Living's Internet provider(s) and/or 
online service provider(s).
Plain English
     8. LIMITATION OF LIABILITY:  Under no circumstances and 
under no legal theory, tort, contract, or otherwise, shall 
Dynamic Living Media be liable to the end user or any other 
person for any indirect, special, incidental, or consequential 
damages of any type including, without limitation, damages for 
loss of goodwill, lost productivity,
computer failure or malfunction, or any and all other commercial 
damages or losses which are not directly due to negligence or 
malice on the part of Dynamic Living Media as covered by legal 
definitions of reasonable care.  This limitation of liability 
shall not apply to liability for death or personal injury to the 
extent applicable law prohibits such limitation.  Some 
jurisdictions do not allow the exclusion or limitation of 
incidental or consequential damages, so this limitation and 
exclusion may not apply to all users.
Plain English





Your rights to use the software itself never expire, and the do's 
and don'ts relating to copyright law will be in effect for 
decades to come...except for your right to share the software 
with others, which you may do two years after this software's 
release date.  "Software package" means this helpfile 
specifically and all files except for any free or freely copyable 
programs included as part of this package.  Just be aware that 
even the freely copyable parts of the package are protected by 
copyright and can't be sold or claimed as the work of anyone but 
us.
As a matter of policy, Dynamic Living Media downgrades all 
software labelled "commercial", "retail" or "shareware" to 
freeware after two years.  Check the dates on the files in this 
program's directory if you're not sure.



This might sound strange.  The first part is fairly standard 
stuff...you can make as many as two backup copies of the software 
if you like, but you might be confused by our second condition 
here.
Think of it this way.  If your home burns down, or your computer 
is stolen, and your only backup copy was sitting next to your 
computer, you are truly out of luck.  Store at least one of your 
backups far enough away from the original so that it can't be 
lost in the same disaster that results in the loss of your 
computer.



We know we can't stop you from making copies for friends, posting 
it on pirate bulletin boards or otherwise playing it fast and 
loose with our work.  But if we catch you trying to make money 
doing so, or acting in a way which deprives us of our right to do 
business, such as distributing the software on the Internet, 
you'd better believe we'll come after you.
Also, if you are a member of a non-profit organization involved 
in relief work or a registered public charity doing work related 
to assisting the disadvantaged, contact us about receiving 
licenses for free use of this software for purposes relating to 
your efforts.



Your right to use the materials you got with this help kit, and 
that you will get in future from us via email or FTP, never 
expire.  If you're a reviewer or are evaluating the software for 
purchase as part of your job or position with an organization or 
agency, you may be required to destroy your copy(ies) of the 
software after a given period of time.



This is part of our commercial license.  Don't worry about it.



We at Dynamic Living believe that freedom of information is more 
than just a right.  It's a principle.  All Dynamic Living Media 
information products become free software two years after the 
release date.  (The release date for Dynamic Living Media 
products is the same as the date on the files themselves.)
We encourage all publishers to adopt similar free-distribution 
clauses for their outdated software so that the gap between 
"information haves" and "information have-nots" can be reduced.  
Let's face it...after two years on the market, a publisher isn't 
going to make much money on an old version of the software 
anyway.



If your disks fail when you try to install them, get in touch 
with us.  If you can contact us by email we can often help you 
get a new copy of the software via the Internet or an online 
service in less time than it would take to mail you a 
replacement.
If the failure is not due to a problem which we can control, we 
can't be responsible for it.
And if you do not have a properly functioning, 100-percent 
industry standard IBM-compatible computer with a 
properly-functioning Microsoft Windows 3.1/3.11 or Windows 95 
operating system for which you have a legal license, we can't be 
responsible for that either.
If you do have this software and there are conflicts with other 
programs that prevent you from using this software, we can't be 
responsible for that either, although we will usually do our best 
to insure compatibility if a conflict arises between our software 
and another widely-used program.



If it's our fault, we'll do everything in our power to fix it.  
If it's not our fault, well, we need this disclaimer to protect 
ourselves against people who enjoy frivolous lawsuits.
A note to help authors
"How did you do that?"


Please don't write to ask this.  We have no intention of sharing 
our secrets via email.  Instead we encourage you to find out for 
yourself, and there's a fairly easy way to do this.
     There is now an excellent free decompiler available which 
will convert Windows Help binaries to RTF formatted text and 
extract all bitmaps and baggage, and even write a project file.  
If you decompile this software you'll learn precisely how we did 
our stuff, what DLLs we used, and if you care to spend a few 
hours FTPing, we'll even tell you where to get the tools.
     The two FTP sites we relied upon most for developing this 
software were ftp.onyxgfx.com/pub/winhelp and 
ftp.gmu.edu/pub/winhelp.  If your FTP client doesn't like these 
URLs, try them in your browser.  The decompiler was most recently 
filenamed HELPDC13.ZIP.
"How can I do that?"


Just follow our examples.  Anything more than that would be 
spoonfeeding.  We do remind you that this material is 
copyrighted, although many of the DLLs we used are freeware.
"Why are you doing this?


If you had gone through half of the heartache we experienced when 
developing this software, you'd probably feel the same way.  
Damned if we'll watch anyone go through that kind of pain and 
frustration if we can help it.
     Besides, they call it winhelp, not winhoard, and we had a 
lot of assistance from other Winhelp authors in developing and 
fine-tuning this project.

 
  



Data compression has always been one of those mysteries reserved 
for the Grand Mystics of computerdom.  The guys who operated the 
big corporate mainframe systems knew about it, used it, even 
worshipped it.  But getting an explanation a layman could 
understand was tougher than finding a third-grade primer on 
nuclear physics.
     Hackers tortured hundreds of thousands of PC users with 
terms like archive extraction and recursively-collected 
subdirectories, and left supposedly useful files on systems with 
extensions like .ARC and .ZIP that most people never even learned 
how to use.
     Data compression technology (or, to be more specific, 
compression programming, since compression is performed by 
software, not hardware, although hardware can be used in the 
compression process...confused yet?) has been one of the great 
boons to computerdom at virtually every level.  It's in everyday 
use by everyone from the home hobby user to the massive 
government and corporate databases.
Several kinds of savings


It saves time, because it takes time to transmit large amounts of 
data over the typically slow communications channels in use 
today.  It saves space because uncompressed data needs 
considerably more storage space than compressed data.
     But most importantly it saves money, because disk storage 
costs money.  Compression is, very simply, a means of storing 
more data in less disk space.  Whether compression actually saves 
space at this time really isn't important.  How many people do 
you know with hard disks and floppy disk collections so large in 
physical size that they need compressing?
Used in every aspect of computing today


Data compression is used today in virtually every aspect of 
computing.  That RLE graphics file which graces your Windows 
startup screen is compressed.  If it wasn't, it might take up 
50,000 bytes instead of the 25,000 bytes it occupies on your disk 
now.  If you use a 14.4kbaud modem, your data is probably being 
compressed by your modem and decompressed at the other end to 
save time in transmission.  If you have DOS 6.0 or higher on your 
system, chances are you're using DoubleSpace to increase your 
hard disk capacity.  DoubleSpace is a form of data compression 
designed to compress an entire hard disk.  And if you have a 
shareware CD-ROM or get new programs from bulletin boards or 
online services, you're probably acquainted with those pesky 
files with .ZIP extensions.  These .ZIP files usually contain 
several files in a compressed form, condensed into a single file 
to simplify storage.
  
  
A compression and archiving lexicon


There are a few basic terms that almost every user will benefit 
from knowing when it comes to working with even the simplest file 
compression software.  Here are the most important:
Archive
      An archive, when speaking of compressed files, usually 
refers to the file which is created by the compression software 
after it has processed your data.  A .ZIP file might be referred 
to as a .ZIP archive, or just an archive.  It's not necessarily a 
true archive though, because in most cases a real, live archive 
file has had a specific bit of data altered so that the system 
software knows a backup copy has been made.
Compress
      To shrink in size without reducing value.  Simple enough.
Extract, Expand or Decompress
      What you have to do to get usable data from a compressed 
archive file.  In most cases, the same piece of software can be 
used for adding files to a compressed archive and extracting one 
or more files from that archive.  Not so with PKZIP, which uses 
two separate programs for the job, a decision by Phil Katz that 
actually makes life easier for the average user.
     You usually create an archive file by adding files to a new 
compressed file whose name you specify when you run the software.  
This data isn't normally usable again until you extract files 
from the archive.  Usually you extract all of the files in the 
archive, but if you use compression software to create archival 
backups of your data, extraction can be used to restore single 
files from the archive.
     Unlike most forms of data compression, archiving file 
compression software doesn't change a thing about your original 
files unless you tell it to.  When you add files to an archive, 
your original files remain just as they were.  And when you 
extract them from an archive, the archived file will usually 
still contain a compressed copy of the data.
PKUNZIP.EXE (or PKUNZJR.COM)
      One of two programs which were mandatory until just a 
couple of years ago for handling ZIP archives.  These programs 
were two of very few programs capable of extracting files from 
the tens of millions of publicly-available archives with .ZIP 
extensions (i.e. files with .ZIP at the end of the name, such as 
MYFILES.ZIP).  The latest version as of December, 1995 was 2.04g, 
and if you work with DOS you'll need this newer version to handle 
most of the .ZIP files floating around today.
     If you're not sure you have the right version of 
PKUNZIP.EXE, the unfortunate part is that you can't find out the 
version number by running it, and its date stamp may also be 
unreliable.  You'll have to check the file's size.  Version 
2.04gof PKUNZIP.EXE is 28,806 bytes long.
     Fortunately, if you have Windows there are dozens of 
programs available for handling ZIP archives, including the 
StuffIt Expander program featured in First Train for the 
Internet.
     By the way, if all you have is PKUNZIP.EXE, you don't have a 
full version of the software.  PKWARE Inc. has decreed that 
everyone who receives PKZIP software should have the full version 
of the software, which comes in a compressed archive file called 
PKZ204G.EXE.  This package includes tools for creating ZIPs as 
well, and a useful utility for fixing damaged and 
distorted-but-healthy ZIP
archives, both of which are near-necessities for anyone with the 
smallest drop of hacker blood in them.
     You'll find links where you can obtain the full PKZ204G.EXE 
(or a newer version if it exists) on the Software Resources Page 
where you can obtain this package now.  It's free for personal 
use -- you only need to purchase a license for commercial use -- 
so why not take advantage?
Syntax
      Every file compression program seems to have its own 
syntax, or dialect if you like.  Some attempts have been made at 
standardizing the syntax, but this standardization has been 
voluntary, and if the author of the software decides not to go 
along with the norm, there's not much we as users can do about 
it.  Knowledge of syntax is necessary for the use of virtually 
every compression/decompression program around unless you use a 
shell program to handle archives.
     And if you are a novice user, it is strongly suggested that 
you find and use one of the many DOS or Windows shareware and 
freeware shells.  It's much easier to be prompted by a shell that 
says What do you want to add to the .ZIP file?  than it is to 
remember that the .ZIP file comes before the source files and 
that hyphens are needed for this program and -d doesn't have the 
same meaning here as it did there.  These shell programs take the 
memory work out of managing compressed archive files and are a 
must for virtually anyone in their first year or two of 
computing.
  
  
Hard Disk Compression
More space...but at a price


The most commonly used form of compression on the PC, at least 
until the Internet started changing everyone's notions of how 
software can be delivered, was probably hard disk compression.  
Millions of people are now using DoubleSpace (now known as 
DriveSpace).  Less common is a program called Stacker, which 
predated DoubleSpace by several years.
     Microsoft made DoubleSpace part of the DOS 6.0 package, 
effectively giving access to low-cost disk compression to 
everyone.  The folks who make Stacker had almost cornered the 
market before DoubleSpace came along, and even manufactured 
hardware add-on boards to compress and decompress data even 
faster and with less memory.
     In theory it's an excellent idea...twice the hard disk space 
almost instantly.  In practice many people who compress their 
hard disks later wish they hadn't.
How it works


These programs load a small sub-program into your system at 
boot-up that intercepts every byte of data going to and coming 
from your hard disk.  When you save a file to disk, it takes that 
file and performs some fancy encoding on it.  When it's done, the 
rewritten file is useless to your system but still perfectly 
understandable to your compression program, and it takes up an 
average of 40 to 55 percent less space.  When the file is read 
back into memory again, the disk compressor's sub-program grabs 
the data before the program can get to it and expands it to 
normal size so it's understandable to the program.  It's a 
wonderful way to turn a 500-megabyte hard disk into a 
900-megabyte hard disk in just a couple of hours.
The downside


The problems are obvious to serious users almost instantly.  The 
first noticeable change to your system is dependence upon yet 
another piece of software that could, theoretically, cost you 
every byte of data on your system if the software fails.  You 
must always have that encoding/decoding software in your system 
or you'll never be able to properly access the data.  It's the 
same with most forms of compression.  You need the secret decoder 
ring, the sub-program that compresses and decompresses, to 
translate the data.  Without it, all you have is gibberish.
     Then there's the problem of having a piece of software 
process every bit of data on your system going to and from the 
hard disk.  Keep in mind that data compression and decompression 
take system time, and that disk read and write is the biggest 
speed bottleneck on every computer...next to the modem of course.  
Suddenly everything on the system is slowed by the amount of time 
taken to compress and decompress the data.
     The third problem is the increased risk of data loss.  
Computers are and probably will continue to be as imperfect as 
the people who build and program them.  Any extra processing of 
data adds to the insecurity of the resulting data, and disk 
compression is one huge layer of processing.
     Add it all up and chances are that you'll meet just as many 
people who were thrilled to get rid of their disk compression as 
you will people who were happy to have it.
Still using DOS 6.0 DoubleSpace?  Get it fixed NOW!


Just a note to anyone who might still be using DOS 6.0's 
DoubleSpace: beg, borrow or steal a DOS 6.22 upgrade disk 
immediately if you haven't already done so.  A large number of 
users reported all kinds of data problems with the original 
version of DoubleSpace, problems which were fixed with the MS-DOS 
6.22 upgrade.  If you have MS-DOS 6.0 on your system, you can 
purchase the upgrade disk from most dealers for as little as 
$10.00.)
What's coming


Windows 95 promises some exciting changes to the old notions of 
how disk compression software should work.  As of late 1995 there 
was a new type of disk compression called ZipStream available for 
the IBM-compatible which compressed a single file at a time, 
allowing for much smoother and quicker operation.  Most current 
users of disk compression software are less than pleased by the 
performance of their systems once the software is installed, and 
understandably frightened by the way these compressors compress 
everything into one block of data, making the whole system that 
much more vulnerable to data loss.
     There's no two ways about it...even with hard disk space 
dropping below 25 cents per megabyte there is still a market for 
disk compression.
  
  
Data transmission compression
Used by everyone


Every consumer-level modem sold these days comes with data 
compression software built right into it.  This compression 
programming is designed to reduce the cost of telecommunications 
by reducing the time it takes for data to pass over phone lines 
or microwave signals.
     The most common type of data compression today is known as 
v.42bis.  (There is also a v.32bis, but this is a scheme for 
allowing a modem to send and receive data at the same time.  It's 
a timesaver in a lot of cases but not exactly a data compression 
scheme.) The old standard was known as MNP (Microcom Networking 
Protocol), and virtually every modem includes MNP-5 somewhere in 
its hardware.
     US Robotics, makers of perhaps the most popular and 
best-loved modems in North America, used their own special 
compression scheme called HST (stands for High-Speed 
Transmission) for several years.  While v.42 is part of almost 
every modem, including the USR's, HST can only be used when one 
USR modem is talking to another USR modem.
A noticeable improvement


If you've ever dialed up a bulletin board and waited for screens 
of information to be drawn on your computer, you can understand 
the value of compressing data for transmission.  Long-distance 
modemers in particular appreciate this feature of modern modems.  
It can cut the time it takes for a screen to be drawn on your 
monitor by as much as 75 percent, but if you're downloading data 
in the form of .ZIP files or other compressed files, it seems the 
best these schemes can achieve at this time is about a fifteen 
percent increase in speed.  But every penny counts when you're 
dialing a "pay-for-play" BBS or online service such as GEnie or 
CompuServe.
  


  
Graphic Compression
A picture is worth a tenth of its space


If you have explored Windows at any depth and enjoy computer 
graphics, chances are you have been introduced to the .GIF or 
..JPG file.  The compression formats used on these files are 
specifically designed for graphics for reasons which will be 
explained a little later.  The more efficient that computer 
monitors become at displaying smaller pixels and larger numbers 
of colors, the more vital this form of data compression has 
become.  And with the explosion of the Internet and the need for 
transmission of large amounts of graphics data in the shortest 
possible time, the ability to reduce the size of graphics files 
to as little as 1/10th to 1/20th their original size has become 
critical.
     Both .GIF and .JPG files, the types most commonly used on 
the Internet's World Wide Web, are forms of compressed graphic 
data.  But this type of compression is different from most 
others.  It's known as lossy compression, as compared to most 
other types which are termed lossless.
You win a lot, you lose a little


DoubleSpace and v.32 won't change a single byte of your data when 
they compress it.  But when you create a .GIF file, you actually 
lose data which you can never recover.  This is because .GIF 
processing software looks at the graphics files and sacrifices 
data in non-critical areas on the assumption that the viewer will 
never miss the lost data.  Purists despise this aspect of the GIF 
format, because it can visibly affect the quality of the image.  
JPEG, the software which creates .JPG files, performs similar 
trickery.  Most other types of compression could never get away 
with this sort of corner-cutting without destroying the data 
completely.
     There are many formats for graphics compression.  AutoCAD 
has its own format (.DXF).  Designers of paint programs all seem 
have their own formats.  Some are lossy and some are lossless.  
Which you prefer depends on the sharpness of your esthetic sense 
and the amount of room you have on your hard disk.  Lossless 
compression always results in much larger graphics files, and for 
now at least the standards are GIF and JPEG.
What's ahead


We expect PNG (Portable Network Graphics) to become the new 
standard on the World Wide Web by 1997.  This is because 
CompuServe owns the copyright on the GIF file format and has 
demanded royalties be paid by all commercial users of this type 
of graphics compression.  JPEG faces a similar dilemma.  PNG, a 
format available free to all, creates somewhat larger files than 
GIF, but the fact that it can be used royalty-free is bound to 
make it popular with businesses and software developers, and like 
it or not, they control what we eventually use.
    
File Compression
Where the mud is deepest


This is the type of data compression that gives novice users the 
biggest headaches.  File compression is one of the most confusing 
topics then novice computer user is likely to face, and also one 
of the most useful.  File compression software, or archiving 
software, is something which until very recently almost everyone 
had to learn from the ground up.  Skills learned with other types 
of programs were generally not too helpful when it comes to 
understanding file compression software.
     As if things weren't confusing enough, there isn't even one 
standard type of file compression.  There are several types which 
are popular and dozens more which aren't used very often.  It 
sometimes seems like every developer who wants to save space in 
their software invents a new compression scheme to do it.
PKZIP: the only format you really need to understand


Fortunately the average user probably only needs to know how to 
handle two or three of them, and the main program almost everyone 
needed to learn -- again until just recently -- is PKWARE's 
extremely popular PKZIP.  If (better make that when) you add a 
CD-ROM drive to your system you'll probably wind up with one or 
more "shareware" CDs.  The files on most shareware disks are 
compressed with PKZIP.  If you don't know what PKZIP does and how 
to handle these files, you're bound to run into problems at some 
point.
     Almost every Windows Internet user eventually discovers that 
the overwhelming majority of IBM-compatible software is 
transferable to your computer only as a PKZIP-compressed archive.  
If you don't understand the basic principles of this software, 
you're like a kid in a candy store...a kid with a sugar allergy.  
All of these goodies and none to eat.
     PKZIP.EXE is perhaps the most common program in all of 
computerdom, and by far the most popular of the file compression 
programs.  It is faster than any other popular compressor, 
creates files as small or smaller, and it's also the easiest for 
the average user to learn.
Data conservation: the top priority


What PKZIP and related programs do is take whole groups of files 
and perform an encoding operation on them, just as all the other 
types of compressors do, but in the case of file compression for 
archiving, smaller size is more important than speed of 
extraction.  Most of the better file compression programs perform 
one encoding operation, then encode the data a second time using 
a different formula to make the file even smaller.
     This means it takes longer to compress and expand data this 
way than any other, but it also means that the files created take 
up less space.  Sad to say, this multiple-algorithm compression 
process usually doesn't result in more than a ten to fifteen 
percent reduction in size over the much faster methods used by 
programs such as Stacker and DoubleSpace.
     On average, PKZIP will shrink a group of files so that, in 
their compressed form, they take up an average of only about 40 
to 45 percent of the disk space they needed when uncompressed.  
Until the most recent version of PKZIP (version 2.04g was 
released in 1993 and
version 3.0 is expected early in 1996), two programs called LHArc 
and ARJ created smaller files at just about the same speed as the 
old PKZIP.  PKZIP Version 2.04g is about 30 percent faster on 
average than LHArc and ARJ, and creates files five to ten percent 
smaller.  Needless to say, LHArc and ARJ fell out of popular use 
very quickly in 1994 although you'll still see them in use 
occasionally.  PKZIP is the standard, and until someone comes up 
with something better, it's the one we'll all be using most.
  
  
Executable Compression
All the best runners are lean
It wouldn't be fair to end this section without discussing a more 
specialized form of file compression software.  This software is 
designed specifically for shrinking the size of executable or 
"runnable" files, the actual programs used by DOS and Windows.  
These programs are sometimes limited to compressing only .EXE or 
..COM files, and most of them function in DOS only.  There's not 
much in the way of .BAT file compression...and not much needed 
when you consider that the average .BAT file is under a hundred 
bytes in length.  Windows executable compression exists, but it 
has proven to be somewhat buggy and is not widely used.
     This software is unique because it takes an .EXE or .COM 
file and compresses it without changing its ability to run as a 
program.  It's like ZIP-ing your programs (or LZHing or ARJing 
them).  It seems like everyone who writes compression software 
has created a companion program for packing executables at some 
time or another.  There are more than a dozen in circulation for 
DOS executables as public domain, free software or shareware.
Good news and bad news


This form of compression has two drawbacks.  It saves space and 
uses a lightning-fast decompression program tacked onto the end 
of the compressed original program so you don't wait more than a 
split-second for it to expand itself into memory.  But it can't 
be used with all types of programs.  Some programs have data 
segments inside them called overlays.  Windows programs use 
overlays by the ton.
     The DOS rules say you shouldn't put overlays in the program 
itself (Windows makes these overlays almost a necessity), but a 
lot of programmers ignored that rule or worked around it.  When 
you try to compress an overlay you very often get bad results 
when running the program, but not always.
     If you like the notion of using this type of compression, 
experiment to see which programs will compress without harm and 
which won't.  The most popular is another PKWARE product: 
PKLITE.EXE, and literally hundreds of developers have purchased 
licenses for PKLITE to compress executable programs for their 
software packages.
The payoff: more disk space at (usually) no cost


Executable compression, also known as program packing, was used 
to save hard disk and floppy disk space when disk compression 
such as Stacker and DriveSpace was rare or expensive.  Stacker -- 
the most common disk compression software in the world before DOS 
6.0's DoubleSpace -- cost more to purchase than the whole DOS 6.0 
package, so not everyone could take advantage of its benefits.
     Program packing worked wonderfully well on 286 and 386-class 
machines, but (and here's the second drawback) older XTs and 
especially PCs produced noticeable delays when they tried to run 
packed programs of any size.  It might not seem like much to you, 
but a lot of users found that waiting several seconds, or even 
just a second or two, for a program to unpack itself when it was 
run was an intolerable situation.  Fortunately, these delays on 
even the largest programs are almost unnoticeable on anything 
faster than a 386 running at 16MHz.  Every program packer is 
written as much for raw speed as compression efficiency.
Even Microsoft believed in it


Until they finally broke down and purchased a license from PKWARE 
for the PKLITE executable compressor for MS-DOS 6.0, Microsoft 
packed their own programs using something called EXEPACK.  If you 
examine many of the DOS utilities of 20,000 bytes or more from 
MS-DOS 5.0, you'll see "EXEPACK" written right into the code near 
the start of the program.  EXEPACK was fast but not very 
efficient.
     Unfortunately for those with 286's or slower, these programs 
can't be unpacked without special software.  PKLITE is blazingly 
fast in decompressing, but the delay is still noticeable on 
slower machines.  And when DoubleSpace is used on an AT, XT or 
PC-class machine, the user is faced with two decompression 
delays...one for DoubleSpace and one for PKLITE.  Strange when 
you consider that with DoubleSpace installed, there's very little 
advantage in using PKLITE to compress the file an extra few dozen 
bytes or so.
Not much for Windows...yet


As mentioned previously, there's not much in the way of 
executable compression for Windows just yet, and there may never 
be.  Windows 95's new method of operation may allow for whole new 
types of disk compression which will make any kind of compression 
that only works on executables both cumbersome and pointless.
  
  
Using Data Compression Software
Your servant behind the scenes


The nicest thing about most data compression software is that you 
rarely have to think about it or learn how to use it.  
Compression schemes like GIF and JPEG are just "there", and the 
software designed to handle these files also handles the 
compression without your help.  Backup software usually gives you 
the option of compressing your data.  Once you give the okay you 
never need to know anything more about the compression.  Data 
compression in modems is handled by software built into the 
modem's chips.  Once you flick the ON switch on your modem, 
everything is taken care of for you.  And with disk compression 
software like DriveSpace, once it's installed you never have to 
worry about it again (cross your fingers).
     Until recently the one type of software you did need to 
learn was file compression, or archiving software, such as PKZIP.  
It will take a few years yet before everything on the 
IBM-compatible has the ease of use and graphic simplicity that 
the Macintosh's Compact Pro possesses.  In the meantime, there 
are some useful programs available now for handling the job, and 
they have finally broken down the "geek wall" and made handling 
compressed archives a practical possibility even for first-time 
computer users.  Our personal choice for new users is StuffIt 
Expander.
  
  
How data compression programs do their stuff
Trickery and sleight-of-hand


How does data compression software manage to shrink data?  This 
is a question inquiring computer users have asked since the first 
compression software emerged.  When you think about it, data 
compression sounds absurd.  After all, how can 0's and 1's be 
made smaller?  The answer is surprisingly simple, but the time 
and energy needed to turn this simple answer into a useable, 
efficient piece of compression software can be staggering.
     What PKZIP and all other data compression programs do is 
write shorthand.  It's just that simple.  As an example, suppose 
you had a short, one-line text file that read like this:
This is the time for all good men to come to the aid of the 
party.
     This line of text takes up 69 bytes, not counting the 
formatting characters you can't see.  Now suppose that there was 
a shorthand which used basic typewriter characters to substitute 
for whole words such as the and to and double letters such as ll 
and oo.  The becomes #, to becomes 2, ll becomes @ and oo becomes 
&.  Here's what happens:
This is # time for a@ gd men 2 cm 2 # aid of # party.
     Those few changes resulted in a size reduction from 69 to 57 
characters.
Shorthand and longhand


Now imagine that the software that creates this shorthand will 
not only write the shorthand for you, but translate it back into 
longhand at your request, and you have an idea of what data 
compression software does.
     But suppose that there were hundreds of these shorthand 
tricks at work.  Consider the amount of data that could save.  
Now imagine that once the shorthand was done, the software used a 
mathematical form of shorthand to create an even smaller file.  
For instance, every time a and a space were together in the file, 
the software could substitute a single character.  In our 
example, we'd save two more bytes, and another three bytes if # 
and a space were together.
     This is what PKZIP, DoubleSpace, GIF and all other data 
compression software does.  Each type of compression has its own 
particular shorthand system, usually designed to fit the 
conditions it sees in the type of data it's designed to compress.  
The Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) uses shorthand based on the 
popular types of pairings and groupings of graphical data.  Some 
types of compression use mathematical types of shorthand, while 
others combine both mathematical and language-based shorthand.
Language-based compression


By far the most popular type of compression shorthand is 
language-based.  LHArc uses a fairly pure form of compression 
known as Lempel-Ziv-Huffman, which is why LHArc's compressed 
files end with .LZH extensions.  Lempel-Ziv compression is the 
most common compression algorithm on the IBM-compatible, used in 
everything from program packers to PKZIP to disk compressors.  
Its shorthand table is based on frequently-occurring pairs or 
groups of letters in the English language.
     Huffman coding is usually used to process data which has 
already been through the Lempel-Ziv
part of the process.  Huffman is more mathematically based than 
Lempel-Ziv, but it's slow, so most disk compressors use a faster 
variation known as Welch coding as their additional algorithm to 
the Lempel-Ziv table.
     A special type of compression known as JPEG (also referred 
to occasionally as JFIF), used to shrink the size of graphics 
files, is also language-based.  It uses frequently-occurring 
pairs of binary (non-text) characters to create a special form of 
compression that works best with graphics files...better, in 
fact, than GIF and without degree of data loss GIF files often 
suffer.
  
  
Data compression software...who needs it?
When we said "universal" we meant it


Just about everyone either needs or can make effective use of 
data compression, and just about everyone already does.
     Imagine that you have a shareware or public domain software 
package that you want to share with six friends.  The package has 
fifty files in it.  In ten different directories.  And you want 
to give all of these people the same files.  By tomorrow.  This 
is a situation many businesses face every day.
     You have a choice.  You can babysit your computer while you 
create a disk with all the files and directories and laboriously 
copy all ten directories, fifty files and six disks, or you can 
use PKZIP.EXE or a simpler shell program such as Winzip to shrink 
the files and directories down to one single, compact file, send 
them to a computer bulletin board, and leave messages for all 
these friends telling them that their software is ready and 
waiting and where they can find it.
     We've already discussed the uses PKZIP has for dealing with 
files from bulletin boards, Internet and uldb shareware CDs.  
Almost every user who swaps data with friends or coworkers will 
eventually run across one or more .ZIP files.
Who needs graphics compression?


Graphics compression is a necessity in the television and motion 
picture industries.  A single frame from a motion picture reel 
might be no bigger than a negative from a 35mm camera, but that 
single frame can eat up more than ten million bytes of data on a 
hard disk when it's translated into digital format.  The better 
the reproduction quality, the bigger the file.  Now imagine the 
storage headaches when you have several minutes' worth of video 
to store digitally at the industry standard 30 frames per second.  
A single 30-second video clip can chew up several times the space 
available on an average home user's hard disk.
     JPEG and MPEG (named for Motion Picture Experts' Group, the 
developers of this video compression software) save millions of 
dollars in storage space for video labs and production houses.  
And with computer speeds increasing faster than hard disk speeds, 
it's becoming as fast or faster to read a .JPG file into memory 
and extract it than it is to read a full, uncompressed graphics 
file.  Newer forms of compression are promising even better 
results.
Meeting the demand for desktop video


The demand for desktop video on home computers is huge.  The 
storage problems are enormous, though.  The key to creating 
real-time images of reasonable quality is the use of data 
compression -- once again usually JPEG or MPEG -- to reduce the 
disk storage requirements of the video images.
     There are animation compression schemes in use as well which 
compress the data even further by calculating where each part of 
each frame will be located on the next frame of the video.  In 
addition to this lossless compression, a lossy compression is 
often used to strip out a lot of the detail the average viewer 
isn't likely to miss.
     The result?  In theory, video requires mountains more data 
than audio to store.  But you can now purchase full-length motion 
pictures with audio on compact disks which are only designed to 
store
72 minutes of sound.
  
  
The limits of data compression technology
Approaching theoretical maximums


According to experts in the field, we've come just about as far 
as we can in developing general-use data compression software 
using the mathematics we have at this time.  The theoretical 
limit for reduction of file sizes seems to average out at a 60 
percent reduction in size using a range of test files.  PKZIP and 
LHArc have been refined and improved over the years to create 
smaller files, but if the software started with an average size 
reduction of 45 percent, the improvements have probably only 
taken it to 55 or 60 percent.  Data compression is one area of 
computing where things aren't doubling every few years.
     But there seems to be some question about the validity of 
these theories that limit average reductions.  A lot of 
developers with strong math backgrounds claim that it should be 
possible to create software which can average 80 percent 
reductions or better.
Is the real limitation our slow computers?


Technically speaking, it wouldn't even take complex math to 
perform this feat.  We could probably do it now if we could 
create programs big enough, and computers fast enough, to make it 
worthwhile.  You could probably reduce an average file by 80 
percent if you had thousands of shorthand codes and a computer 
fast enough to compare those codes to the list hundreds of times 
on every file.
     Most data compression software is limited in speed and size 
reduction by the number of shorthand tricks it can use without 
having so many calculations to perform that the software becomes 
too slow to be usable.  Shrinking a one megabyte file to 
one-fifth of its original size isn't of much value if it takes 
ten minutes to decode it for use on the average computer.
  
  
Other compression schemes for the PC
The rest of the best


At this writing, PKZIP is acknowledged to be the best overall 
data compression software available to the general public.  It 
compresses and expands data as fast or faster than anything in 
its class, and file sizes are as good or better than any other 
popular compression scheme.  PKZIP started as an improvement over 
another popular type of archiving software called ARC.
     ARC was the first popular compression software to combine 
several files into one single file after they had been shrunk.  
Systems Enhancement Associates are acknowledged by most to be the 
pioneers of ARC, although many computer mavens dispute this 
claim.  And yes, ARC too used the language-based, Lempel-Ziv 
compression algorithm.
     Before ARC, there were LBR (for LiBRary), and SQUEEZE.  .LBR 
and SQUEEZE files were less efficient than ARC and also limited 
to shrinking one file at a time.  This was a problem with the 
advent of bulletin boards and public domain software, because in 
the early 1980's when these formats were popular, a lot of 
publicly-available software packages included not just one but 
several files.  This made downloading and preparing the software 
for use a real pain for the average user.
The up-and-comers


ARC isn't in wide use any more because ZIP, ARJ and LZH were so 
much more efficient.  Developer Phil Katz created a program which 
could compress and extract .ARC archives faster than other ARC 
programs of the day and called it PKARC.  He later changed the 
name of the program to PKPAK, partly to distinguish his software 
from others, and partly because several other developers were 
competing to create a better ARC format.  (In this confusing sea 
of competition, No-Gate Consulting produced its own popular 
compression software called PAK, which -- ironically -- will 
handle .ZIP and .ARC files!
     Katz beat everyone to the better mousetrap by creating PKZIP 
in the late 1980's.  Upstarts have stolen the stage for a few 
months here and there, most notably Robert Jung's ARJ compressor, 
but PKZIP has been the front-runner ever since PKWARE released 
Version 2.04 and will probably remain in front for most of the 
rest of the decade.
     PKWARE has always had other publishers nipping at their 
heels though, and even as late as 1995 there have been a couple 
of newcomers.  RAR and UC2 are a pair of new archiving formats 
that produce results comparable to or better than PKZIP 2.04g, 
and while neither is widely used, they will almost certainly prod 
PKWARE into producing even faster, more powerful compression 
software for their 3.x release in 1996.
File compression on other platforms


UNIX is either replacing or being added to DOS and Windows on a 
lot of PC's, thanks in no small part to the free Linux operating 
system and the enormous popularity of the Internet where UNIX is 
king.  In addition to native versions of the ZIP and Lempel-Ziv 
formats, UNIX has its own compression schemes such as gzip.  As 
Internet becomes more and more useful to the everyday user, we 
can expect to see UNIX compression schemes become much more 
widely used on the IBM-compatible.
     The Apple Macintosh world also has its own compression 
software, of which the most common
in use today is called Compact Pro.  Earlier Mac compression 
programs were known as PackIt and StuffIt, created by Aladdin 
Systems who released the StuffIt Expander program for Windows.  
They too use the Lempel-Ziv algorithm as part of their process.


Phil Katz of PKWARE has continued in his tradition of making the 
programming secrets of ZIP compression available to the public, 
and now every commonly-used computer type, from the Atari to the 
NeXT, has its own ZIP-compatible software for creating and/or 
extracting .ZIP files.  Katz' idea was to have one common type of 
data compression which could be used throughout the computing 
world regardless of which operating system you used.  He wanted 
PKZIP to be that standard, and excellent PKZIP-compatible 
software can be had by IBM-compatible, UNIX, Atari and Amiga 
users.
     Unfortunately, the one frontier he needed to conquer -- the 
Macintosh -- didn't have ZIP software which worked reliably until 
1994.
  
  
Copyrights and rights of use
STACKER  is copyright 1988-92 by STAC Technologies
DOUBLESPACE  is copyright 1992 by Microsoft, Inc.
ARJ is copyright 1991 by Robert Jung
PKZIP , PKUNZIP and PKLITE are copyright 1989-1993 by PKWARE
PAK is copyright 1988-90 by NoGate Consulting
ARC is copyright 1986-92 by Systems Enhancement Associates
LHA and LHARC is copyright 1988-91 by Haruyasu Yoshizaki
PKZIP/PKUNZIP are available for use free of charge for private 
users; commercial users are legally required to register the 
software. 
ARJ and PAK are released as shareware and licenses for use must 
be purchased by anyone who continues to use the software beyond 
the limits outlined in the licensing agreement.
ARC, DriveSpace and Stacker are the trademarked property of their 
respective copyright holders, and all rights are reserved.
LHA and LHARC are available free of charge for use by anyone 
under the terms of the licensing agreement set forth by Yoshi.
  
  
Maintenance section 3: Back it up!


What if we were to tell you that you need never fear viruses and 
trojans again, that you could look at them from now on as 
nuisances no worse than a stain on a nice piece of clothing?  
What if we were to tell you that all of five minutes a week could 
protect you from all but the worst losses you might experience?  
Enough of the "what-ifs"...let's get down to some hard facts.
     A very common novice computing mistake is not backing up 
important data.  Understandable, actually.  We're taught that 
it's extravagant and expensive to have two of everything.  But 
when it comes to software, it's not extravagant at all.  It's 
essential insurance against loss.  Computer data is very 
delicate, and almost everyone will eventually suffer some sort of 
data loss, either to a virus, old age or defective hardware.  
Here's some information on what you can do to minimize that loss 
with the least amount of effort.
    What backups are and why you need them
    The why's and how's of preserving your precious data
    An equally important question: what to back up
    The common types of backups  
What backups are why you need them


Any consultant worth their salt will advise you to backup, 
Backup, BACKUP!  Consultants tend to be experienced, highly 
knowledgeable users, and most of them practice what they preach.  
Even software publishers believe in the practice, and they sell 
data, not disks.  In fact, it advises right in your DOS manual to 
make a backup copy of your DOS installation diskettes.  You'll 
see the same warning in the manual for just about every important 
piece of software you'll use, with the exception of some games 
and utility packages.  Here's why.
    Why are backups so important?
    Disks and data aren't damage-proof
    It pays to have a lot of duplicate files
    Are there any shortcuts you can take?
  
Why are backups so important?
Accuracy is everything


Backups are critical because of the nature of disks and data.  
You don't really need backups of your cassettes because if a 
little piece of magnetic film chips away from you tape, you'll 
hardly notice it.  Over the years tape will sound thin, but 
you'll still be able to listen to the music.
     Not so with floppy disks.  Every bit of data has a purpose, 
and if a tiny bit of magnetic film chips away from a disk, or if 
a hair creeps into the disk's plastic shell and scratches the 
surface, or even if a stray gamma ray from the Sun manages to get 
through the ozone and strike the wrong place on your disk, the 
entire software package might be rendered worthless.
What's worth more...the software or your data?


Backups are also insurance against fire or theft.  If you paid 
good money for your software, there's no reason why you shouldn't 
be able to keep using it even if a thief steals the original 
disks.  Backups insure that you can.  They also preserve your 
work.  How would you feel if your computerized personal diary was 
lost in a fire along with every entry it contained?  It's bad 
enough to lose your computer in a disaster.  There's no reason 
why you should lose your data as well.
     There is another reason why backups are so important, and it 
has more to do with mistakes we make as users than physical 
damage to disks.  More on that later.
  
  
Disks and data aren't damage-proof
Corruption in your midst


Computer hardware gets more reliable with each passing year, but 
we're still a long way from perfection.  Disks fail and files get 
corrupted far more often than the average user realizes.  It's 
probably fair to say that millions of users whose systems seem to 
be functioning fine have corrupted data they don't yet know 
about.  No problem if the corrupted file is one you never use.
     But what if it's the main program file that gets corrupted?  
If you didn't have a backup copy of that file somewhere, you can 
kiss the whole software package goodbye -- and worse, all the 
work you did with it -- until you get a new copy.  And the 
problem might be a single 0 where there should be a 1.
     Reputable consultants and tutors will always advise you to 
back up every bit of data in your collection.  If you use your 
computer in a business environment, they'll probably advise you 
to back up any new data on a daily basis.  Home users probably 
don't need to go to this extreme, but new files should be backed 
up at least once a month.
The chore no one wants to do


Yet most users still don't back up their data.  In the first 
place, a full backup takes time.  Usually an hour and often two 
or three.  (Actually, it only takes that long the first time 
through.  After the first full backup, adding new files to an 
existing backup set usually takes no more than two minutes a day, 
tops, or ten minutes a month for home users.) The second factor 
is cost.
     Backing up a fat hard disk requires costly tape backup 
hardware or a lot of floppy disks, and not many people want to 
shell out for fifty to a hundred floppies just on the chance that 
they might some day need a tiny bit of data from just one of 
them.
     That is, until they discover that the tiny bit of data is 
their 1992 tax return or a save file from a game they'd been 
playing for weeks.
  

  
It pays to have a lot of duplicate files
Mistakes don't have to be fatal


If you get in the habit of doing regular backups of your whole 
system and you're a business user (or just a busy home user), 
you'll eventually wind up with several copies of the same files.  
This happens because each time you make changes to the file, the 
archive bit gets reset and your backup software will make a new 
copy of it.  Far from being a waste of disks, this can literally 
save your backside in the long run.
     Let's say you start doing your taxes with the Lotus 1-2-3 
spreadsheet and save your work as MY_TAXES.WRK.  You might chop 
away at this chore for weeks, and do backups of your new data 
every week, resulting in perhaps eight copies of MY_TAXES.WRK 
stored on eight different floppy disks.  It seems like a waste of 
space until you consider what might happen if you make a mistake 
with Lotus that you don't discover for a whole month.
You can rewrite history


One evening you recalculate and nothing seems right.  But you 
recall that a month ago, everything was right.  If you have a 
backup copy of MY_TAXES.WRK from that time, you can ignore the 
newer backups and load that old, "useless" file into Lotus and 
make your detective work fairly simple.  If you kept erasing or 
writing over top of your MY_TAXES.WRK file every week, that old 
file would be long gone by now.
     This is only one example of the benefit of having backups of 
all your work in various stages of progress.  Writers, home 
accountants, students, artists and even game players can all 
benefit from this seemingly wasteful duplication of data.  Many 
times we've erased old backups to make space for new files and 
regretted the mistake later.  We'd have been much better off 
spending the money on a few extra disks than trying to conserve 
space on the ones we had.
  
  
Are there any shortcuts you can take?
Not a place for cutting corners


There are no real shortcuts for avoiding backup boredom and cost.  
There is generally a direct correlation between the speed of the 
backup and the amount of money spent on backup hardware.  Even 
fast backup software takes a lot of time and patience.
     The only real shortcut you can take with backups is to use 
preformatted disks if you are creating a floppy disk backup set 
so you don't spend fifteen minutes per box waiting for DOS' 
FORMAT to do its thing.  Unfortunately not even this trick 
applies if your backup software uses special formatting, and some 
programs do.
  
  
The why's and how's of preserving your data


Here's where you'll learn about the types of backups and learn 
how to make an informed decision about how to balance price, 
performance and security.
    Backups from the DOS perspective
    Manual versus automated backups
    An important and oft-overlooked point: where to store backups
    What you need for a proper backup
    How much are you prepared to invest?
  
Backups from the DOS perspective
Copy, change, watch, forget


At the most basic level, this is how DOS and Windows look at 
backups.  The data being backed up is first copied to another 
medium, which could be anything from a floppy disk to a tape to 
another hard disk; then DOS changes the file so that it is 
"marked" as having been backed up (this prevents needless repeat 
backups every time the process is performed); and finally DOS or 
Windows then watches that data during all subsequent backups to 
see whether it should be included or "forgotten" for any future 
backups.  If the data has been changed since the last backup, it 
is copied again so that the data with these changes is part of 
the backup set.  If it hasn't been changed, it is "forgotten".
Hacking DOS at the bit level
The people who originally programmed DOS knew the importance of 
backing up data when they designed the MS-DOS software package.  
Backup software has been included with DOS for many years now.  
It had to be.
     You might have memories of days not so long past when disk 
manufacturing technology wasn't nearly what it is today, when you 
could count on one bad disk in every fresh box of ten, and 
floppies couldn't be relied upon to store data accurately from 
one month to the next.  The memory lingers to this day for many 
people, and a lot of computing veterans still make two backups of 
everything in case the first backup goes bad.
     DOS' programmers had backups in mind they originally 
designed the file system.  Since the first days of DOS, all files 
used on IBM-compatible computers have something called an archive 
bit which is found in the same place on every file.
The archive bit


A bit is the smallest increment of data, and it can either be a 0 
or a 1. The archive bit is found in the same place on all files 
on your system.  When backups are performed by intelligent backup 
software, the archive bit on the file is changed from 1 to 0, so 
that any backup software you might use will know that a backup 
copy of this file, or "one for the archives," has been created.
     Any time a piece of software makes changes to a file, DOS 
looks at this bit.  If it's set at 0, DOS changes it back to 1 
again so your backup software knows that the file was changed 
since the last copy was made.  All true backup software has the 
ability to ignore files which have already been copied to a 
floppy disk and back up only the new data.  That's why it takes 
so little time after the first major backup has been done.
  
  
Manual versus automated backups
Two basic types of backups


There are two basic ways to back up software: manually, meaning 
that you decide what to back up and how to back it up every time 
you perform the chore; and automatically, meaning that you use 
backup software which follows your instructions.  While it seems 
to make sense to do it automatically all the time, it's not 
always the best way to go.
Pros and cons
      Manual backups take longer to perform, but automated backup 
software can be confusing for the novice user.
      Most backup software will break large files into pieces if 
they don't fit on a single floppy disk (a very common situation 
with newer software), encode the software in a special way to 
save disk space, and some even format disks in a way designed to 
maximize performance.  It can take anywhere from fifteen minutes 
to two or three hours your first time out to figure out how the 
software works, select the data to be backed up and start the 
backup procedure.
      Manual backup, on the other hand, merely requires that you 
have an attached drive to be used to store the backup and enough 
skill to copy files using Explorer or File Manager.  You can 
select what to back up as you go.  You'll need a type of drive 
that can handle files of the largest size you intend to back up, 
which might pose a problem if you intend to use floppies for 
storage.  Eventually you can expect to run into software that 
creates files too large to fit on a single floppy.  Tape drives 
are not generally suitable for manual backup, but the newer 
magneto-optical drives such as the Iomega Zip Drive; and costlier 
removable cartridge hard disks such as the Syquest, are ideally 
suited to this type of backup.
      Another drawback of manual backups is that you must know 
precisely what files need to be backed up and where to find them.  
That requires real expertise in regard to your system.
A matter of preference


If you are comfortable with automated backup software, such as 
the backup program included with DOS, by all means use it.  
Chances are good that automated backup will be a much better 
choice than manual for the novice to intermediate-level user.
     But keep this point in mind.  The most common use you will 
make of your backup set will be to restore a single file that got 
corrupted, perhaps by a mistake on your part or a random hard 
disk error.  (These happen on the best of systems with remarkable 
regularity).  Automated backup systems using special file 
structures and encoding can make finding and restoring single 
files a time-consuming headache.  Ask anyone who has tried to 
restore a single lost file from a 250 megabyte backup tape!
     With manual backups, it's simply a matter of selecting the 
right disk and copying the right file, a job that won't take more 
than a minute once you become comfortable with your computer.
We recommend a two-pronged approach


The simple method used in the Tiny Perfect Menu software package 
(a primitive DOS training package available from our Web site) 
could be termed semi-automatic.  The backup is automated in 
regard to creating the set of backup disks.  If you decide to 
backup your entire hard disk, it will do little else but ask you 
to insert floppy disks for as long as it takes to copy the entire 
contents of your hard disk to floppies.
     But restoring the backup will only be automated if you 
decide to make it so.  You have the choice of restoring files 
manually, which you'll use most often; or automatically, which 
will be handy in case you need to reinstall everything on your 
system.  For us, and for many users, it's the ideal choice
     We often suggest to novice users who have access only to 
floppy disk backup that they avoid the DOS and Windows BACKUP and 
other commercial backup software and do their backups manually, 
at least until they become thoroughly familiar with file 
structures.  Manual and semi-automatic backups require a few more 
floppy disks than automated backup software, but this extra  cost 
is offset by the ease of restoring single files or directories.


On the other hand, if you have access to a tape drive, and can 
either configure automated backup software yourself or find 
someone to do it for you, that will usually be the preferred 
route.
  
  
Where to store backups
Better safe than sorry


As a general rule, it's best never to store finished backup sets 
in the same location as the source computer.  A backup is also 
insurance against theft and fire, and if your backed-up data is 
stored near your computer, theft or fire will result in the loss 
of both your computer and your data.
     If you use a computer in your business, store your backups 
at home in case your business is burglarized or catches fire.  
And if you use your computer at home, keep your backup set in a 
drawer or locker at work, or with a neighbor or friend.  Improper 
storage is far too common with backup sets.  What good is your 
backup if the thief who steals your computer takes every existing 
copy of your data too?  It simply doesn't need to happen that 
way.
    
What you need for a proper backup
Time and tools


Aside from time (set aside three hours for the first thorough 
backup job; you may not need it but it's best to have it 
available just in case), the most important thing you need is 
disks or tapes to store your data.  If you choose disks, you'll 
need lots of them.
     If you've never backed up your data, purchase one high 
density floppy disk for every megabyte of space used on your hard 
disk.  You can use older double density disks, but you'll need at 
least twice as many, so unless you already have a lot of them 
lying around, purchase high density disks for the job.  When it 
comes to tapes, purchase at least one and possibly two more tapes 
than you think you'll need.  For example, if you have a 500Mb 
hard disk and have 300Mb of data to back up to a 120Mb tape 
drive, get four, not three tapes, for the job. You might not need 
the extra tape, but better to have and not need than to need and 
not have.
       First you need to know the capacity of your hard disk.  
Very often users either forget or simply aren't told by the 
dealer.  If you don't know how many megabytes of data are in use 
on your system, here's how to find out.  You may wish to print 
this topic by clicking File and selecting Print topic.
Measuring space


The same utility you may have used before for fixing errors on 
your hard disk, CHKDSK.EXE, can also be used to find out how much 
space is being used on your system so that you can determine 
exactly how much media you will need for your backup.
     To use this utility you must exit Windows completely, or in 
Windows 95, restart the computer in DOS mode.  At the C:\_> 
prompt, type CHKDSK (you don't need the /f) and the program will 
report how much space is actually being used.  If you also have a 
D drive, you'll need to run CHKDSK.EXE on that drive too by 
typing CHKDSK D:.
     Here's a typical readout from CHKDSK.  It's not instantly 
obvious how much space has been used on your hard disk.  The 
actual amount of used space is shown on the fourth line, 
highlighted in dark red.
  448,102,400 bytes total disk space  1,499,136 bytes in 101 
hidden files
    4,448,256 bytes in 539 directories
  366,845,952 bytes in 11,557 user files
   74,285,056 bytes available on disk
        8,192 bytes in each allocation unit
       59,415 total allocation units on disk
       13,783 available allocation units on disk
      655,360 total bytes memory
      602,256 bytes free

Using one-disk-to-one-megabyte, this user 
will need approximately 360 disks to backup their hard disk.  At 
about 50 cents each, they're looking at a cost of at least 
$180.00.  This is an enormous amount of data to copy to floppy, 
so much data that the cost of the floppies alone could pay for a 
tape backup unit.  This user has a serious choice...learn how to 
make good partial backups or purchase a tape backup or removable 
disk unit.
     The time involved for the first backup will also be 
considerable, probably between two and three hours depending on 
what kind of backup hardware is used.
  
  
How much are you prepared to invest?
The choice ahead of you


This might seem like a lot of time and money for something you 
might never need, and you'll have to think seriously about how -- 
or whether -- you want to pursue this.  More and more people are 
foregoing floppies altogether and either buying, borrowing or 
renting tape backup units...or, with the cost of hard disks at an 
astonishingly low price, using spare hard disks for backup.  
Anyone who has lost the entire contents of their hard disk due to 
a hardware problem or a nasty virus will tell you how much they 
wished they had made a backup.  It's cheap insurance, 
particularly when you consider the time and effort you spent 
creating any personalized data, and how you'd feel if you lost 
it.
     Backups are insurance you're almost certain to use, even if 
you never need to collect full benefits.  If you own a computer, 
you will eventually have data errors.  And when (not if, but 
when) you do, you'll be grateful for the time and expense you put 
into the job...or should we say chore.
  
  
The common types of backups
  Backup methods
    Full backup
    Partial backup
    Incremental backup
    Emergency backup
  Backup hardware
    Tape drives
    Magneto-optical drives
    Floppy disks
    Compact disks (CDs)
  
  
Full backup
What it is


A full backup includes every bit of data on your hard disk.  When 
doing your first backup, it's always wise to bite the bullet, 
hunker down with a pizza and a rented video, and spend a quiet 
evening backing up every file on every disk in your collection.  
That includes your hard disk as well as anything on a floppy disk 
that you might feel badly about losing.
Who benefits most from this method
     This is the preferred novice method for backing up data, as 
it is generally foolproof provided no damage occurs to the backup 
media.  It is also recommended for people who work with a large 
number of programs or who like to sample a lot of software but 
don't want the hassle of saving everything to floppy disks.


This is not the best choice for backing up on a budget unless you 
have access to a portable backup unit you can borrow for the job.
Preferred hardware and software


This backup method is best stored on a high-capacity tape drive 
(at least 120Mb and preferably 240Mb or higher for people with 
many different programs on their systems), although many prefer 
newer types of hardware such as the much faster magneto-optical 
disk drives.
     The type of software chosen is up to the individual, and 
when in doubt use the software which was bundled with the backup 
unit.  If backing up to a floppy disk, you may have to settle for 
the backup software that comes with MS-DOS or Windows 95.  If 
backing up to a tape or removable disk drive, there will almost 
always be special software included with the drive for creating 
the backup.  While this bundled software isn't always the fastest 
and most versatile, it can almost always be upgraded later 
without necessitating a completely new backup.
When should they be done?
     As soon as a few programs are installed on a new computer 
and any new data has been created by its owner which it would 
hurt to lose, it's time to think seriously about a full backup.  
The longer a system is left without a backup, the more important 
the first full backup becomes.
Other points to keep in mind


Full backups should also be complemented with smaller, emergency 
backups which contain only configuration information designed to 
return programs to their user-configured state.


Full backups must also be updated regularly or their value to the 
user drops substantially.  These backups should be performed at 
the end of a computing session so they do not cut into productive 
computing time.
  


  
Incremental backup
What it is


An incremental backup is a backup of only those files which are 
new to your system or which have been updated since the last 
backup was done.  Incremental backups are the backups you add to 
a backup set after having done the first full or partial backup.
Who benefits most from this method
     Everyone who makes backups.
Preferred hardware and software
     Incremental backups should always be done with the media 
used to create the full backup.  So if the full backup was 
created on tape, the incremental backup should be added to the 
tape, not stored on floppy disks.  This makes keeping track of 
the backup easier for the backup software and storage less of a 
hassle for the operator.
     The software used for an incremental backup should always be 
the same software used to create the first full backup.
When should they be done?
     It depends on the level of use and productivity by the user.
     Generally speaking, it's a good idea for business users to 
develop a system that automatically adds new and changed data to 
a backup set at the end of each working day.
     Personal business users who don't add a lot of data to their 
system might be able to get by with weekly incremental backups.
     Home computers used by anyone who depends on their computer 
should be incrementally backed up at least weekly.  Home 
computers used casually can probably get by with monthly or even 
seasonal incremental backups, providing the user doesn't mind the 
risk of losing a month's worth of new information.
Other points to keep in mind


Incremental backups are only as good as the time and effort put 
into them.  Hopefully they'll be "worthless" in that they will 
never be needed to restore lost data, but it's usually best to 
prepare for the worst.
     Daily incremental backups made by businesses and busy 
individuals have one serious drawback.  It's important to have 
the backup media (tape, removable disk or floppies) near the 
computer if you plan on making daily backups, but this also 
leaves the risk of theft or damage quite high, since many events 
that damage the computer's data will also damage any nearby 
backup media.
     It's wise to select a method of backup that allows you to 
duplicate your entire backup set if you wish to do daily backups.  
At this time, the removable magneto-optical disk drives appear to 
be the best candidates for this.
  
  
Partial backup
What it is


Simple enough...it's a backup that selects only the most critical 
data on your system, specifically any data created by the user 
and any configuration data which is used to personalize the 
software.
Who benefits most from this method
     While it's not enough for people who want complete security 
and everything about their computer simplified for them, a 
partial backup can benefit everyone who creates new data on their 
computer.  This even includes people who only play games.  
Partial backups will save positions in games, preventing the need 
to go through early levels again if the saved game is lost.
Preferred hardware and software
     None.  It depends on how much data will be saved with a 
partial backup.  If it's just a few megabytes, it can be done 
manually using File Manager to copy files to floppies.  If the 
partial backup involves a number of files created with many 
programs, it is usually a good idea to use a removable disk drive 
or tape backup unit for the job and use the backup software to 
select only those files and directories needing to be backed up.
     Configuring backup software for a partial backup takes 
considerably longer than setting it up for a full backup, but 
this is usually a one-time investment of time, and modifying the 
setup later to include new files and directories takes only a 
fraction of the time taken by the original configuration.
When should they be done?
     The first partial backup should be done as soon as there is 
useful data on the computer which it would hurt to lose.
Other points to keep in mind


If there is catastrophic failure of the hard disk, it won't be 
just the user's data which will be lost.  All programs will be 
lost as well.  While we cannot condone software piracy, it is a 
fact of computing life that most users have software on their 
computers which they do not own and cannot replace without 
purchasing it.  The only protection against this sort of 
catastrophic loss, which is common enough to be worthy of serious 
consideration, is to create a full backup.
  
  
Emergency backups
What it is


While the term is not commonly used yet, emergency backup 
generally refers to backups which contain only the most critical 
data on the system.  For Windows users, this includes 
configuration files for Windows and any DOS system files which 
may be needed to restart the system and get into Windows if the 
system suddenly refuses to run.
Who benefits most from this method
     It's useless if you never have an emergency situation such 
as a botched software installation that shuts you out of Windows, 
never encounter bad data on your hard disk in a critical 
location, never suffer a virus infection, and never make mistakes 
which might erase critical data.
     In other words, no one should be without an emergency 
backup.
Preferred hardware and software
     On the hardware side, emergency backups should always be 
made to floppies designed for floppy disk drive A.
     On the software side, there are many programs to choose from 
but none of them are truly complete.  Some, such as Norton 
Utilities, back up critical information about your hard disk but 
not all of your configuration files.  Others, such as Safety Net, 
First Aid, and our own F-A-S-T Emergency Windows Backup back up 
some or all of your personal configuration files and DOS system 
files but can't save critical information that would guard you 
against a hard disk failure.
     We recommend a combination of both types of emergency 
backups.  Fortunately, emergency disks containing hardware 
information such as hard disk and CMOS setup data only need to be 
made once.
When should they be done?


Emergency backups of critical DOS and Windows files should be 
updated every time you add a new program to your system that you 
plan on keeping for any length of time, and any time you do any 
serious configuration of a program and want to make sure you have 
copies of the configuration files.  This will insure that if you 
need to reinstall the program due to some problem with its 
operation -- even if it was completely erased from the system -- 
you can restore your personal settings quickly and 
easily...provided you reinstall the software to the same location 
as before.
     The first emergency backup containing information about your 
hard disk and system should be made as soon as possible after 
purchasing the computer.  In fact, you might ask the dealer to 
supply one on delivery of the computer.
Other points to keep in mind


Emergency backups of critical DOS and Windows files must be 
backed up regularly if you wish to make sure that your system 
keeps performing in the way you've come to expect.  Restoring an 
old emergency backup could cause programs which you have 
customized to be restored to an earlier state, meaning that 
you'll lose the work you put into the customization.
  


Tape drives come in two flavors: external and internal.  The 
internal units usually operate much more quickly than external 
units and cost a lot less, but external tape drives have the 
advantage of allowing users to share the cost of the hardware 
among several users.
They also come in many capacities.  In general, anything less 
than 120Mb capacity is a burden for Windows users, and tapes for 
smaller formats are becoming increasingly difficult to track 
down.  If you are considering the purchase of a new unit, the 
best price/performance ratio seemed to be second-hand 120Mb units 
at US$100 or less as of late 1995 and 240Mb new units at US$200 
or less.
Be aware that tape drives, being mechanical, require some 
maintenance (see the section on maintenance in the Insurance and 
Medical section for more information) and many servicepeople 
caution users not to expect a lifespan of more than two years on 
any tape drive.  Many seven-year-old units still function 
flawlessly, but a large number of two- and three-year-old units 
give up the ghost, and they are usually not worth repairing.


Magneto-optical disk drives are currently the medium of choice 
for software collectors and people who want to use their backup 
unit as an extension to their hard disk and not just as a backup 
unit.  At an average storage cost of US$0.25 per megabyte of 
storage as of late 1995, they are economical means of storing 
backups of installation floppy disks, copies of critical 
installation files from compact disks, and software received from 
the Internet and online services.
The most popular magneto-optical drive at this writing was the 
Iomega Zip drive.  At an average cost of US$250-300, plus 
US$20-25 for each 100Mb disk, and with a data transfer speed 
faster than floppy disks and the ability to track down individual 
files much faster than tape backup units, they became so popular 
that a serious shortage of disks developed in the fall of 1995.
These disks behave very much like tape or floppy disk media and 
should be treated with the same respect.  This means that you 
should never count on one copy of your data to remain error-free 
for long periods.  As with all backup methods, two copies of the 
data are recommended.

Floppies are the cheapest, but also the slowest and most 
labor-intensive backup medium, and we do not recommend them to 
anyone who can afford proper backup hardware.  They are, however, 
essential for emergency backups.


Compact disks are becoming a more popular medium for backup all 
the time, due mainly to the cost.  For about US$75, plus the time 
it takes to remove the hard disk and transport it to and from the 
location where the CD will be made, you can have up to 650Mb of 
data transferred from your hard disk to a single 
CD...permanently.
At least, that's the common perception.  In practice, these 
"one-off" backups onto CD are not nearly as reliable or 
long-lived as many people have been led to believe.  Depending on 
the quality of the master CD used to create the backup, the disk 
itself may develop errors in as little as a year.
As with all backup media, we recommend making two copies of any 
custom CD backups for the sake of safety.
Also be aware that you cannot add to a CD once it has been 
created.  All you can do is cut another CD with the new data to 
be added.
  
What to back up
No easy answer


The easy answer is everything.  Unfortunately, the easy answer is 
rarely the right one in the looking-glass world of computers.  
Naturally if you have the time and the inclination, and can 
afford a tape backup system for your PC, it makes sense to back 
up everything...twice.  It's a job you can start at bedtime and 
finish in the morning with little lost productivity, and a second 
backup of even a full, fat hard disk will only cost you an extra 
$50 or so at most.
     But most people don't have tape backups, many don't even 
have access to loaners or rental units, floppy disk backups are 
grueling chores, and CD "one-off" shops and magneto-optical 
drives might not be an option.
     There's a lot of data on your computer you can probably do 
without.  But if you don't know enough about your computer to be 
able to tell the difference between essential and non-essential 
data, the logical choice is to back up everything.
Backups of installation floppies


Many veteran users have gotten into the habit of making copies of 
all new software that comes on floppy disks, and backing up the 
contents of the installation directory on a CD before actually 
installing the software.  It might sound silly, but this kind of 
habit usually comes from hard experience with more than one 
installation disk or CD that went bad at a critical moment.   
There's nothing more irritating than having to reinstall Windows 
and discovering that one of the original disks is corrupted, or 
selling your old copy of WordPerfect to someone who discovers 
that the second disk in the installation set is damaged and the 
product won't install on their system.
     Windows 95's disk copy function is blazingly fast compared 
to older DOS and Windows disk copy, and the Copy Disk function in 
File Manager (available from the Disk menu) is simple enough for 
virtually any novice to handle.  If you're a new user, get into 
the habit of buying a box of floppies every time you purchase an 
expensive new program on floppy disk, and a new backup tape when 
you purchase expensive software on CD, and making a backup of the 
installation software.  Not all manufacturers let you do this, 
and some will provide you with free replacement disks if yours 
should go bad, but ask yourself this:


If the program suddenly refused to function and your installation 
disks or CD had errors, could you afford the wait for delivery of 
new installation media?  The choice is yours.
Full backups: much more important with Windows than DOS


Windows programs copy files to more locations than you'd probably 
care to count, so you can't just back up Lotus 1-2-3 for Windows 
or Print Shop Deluxe by copying its directory to a floppy disk.  
Simply put, if you're a Windows user and want to be secure, back 
up everything.
     If you can't afford the time, expense and trouble to do a 
full backup, you're computing beyond your means.  This may sound 
blunt and cruel, but it's the truth.  The real tragedy isn't that 
Windows is like this, it's that you probably weren't told you'd 
need to make this kind of investment when you
purchased your computer. 
Don't forget emergency backups


Even if you decide not to make full backups, there's no reason to 
avoid creating emergency backups...not when we've made it this 
easy.  First Train for the Internet users will find an Emergency 
Backup item under their Utilities menu which will walk them 
through the process of creating an emergency backup of all their 
critical files in a matter of no more than a couple of minutes.  
This disk will protect against most of the major errors you are 
likely to encounter and should not be put off.
Finally, backup your backup software!


It sounds obvious, but you'd be surprised how many people forget 
to make floppy disk copies of their backup software and store 
them with their backup disks or tapes.  If you use the backup 
software that comes with DOS or Windows 95, it's not a big 
problem since you'll find copies of this software just about 
anywhere.  But if it's special software that came with the backup 
drive unit, you might have a sticky problem if your hard disk 
ever suffers a serious problem and you discover that one of the 
install disks for the backup software is corrupted.



Disaster prevention for Windows


This section contains important information about preventing 
problems with Windows and Windows 95 through the use of two 
simple utilities.  One of them tracks the complex arrangement of 
files installed on your computer when you install a new file into 
Windows and allows you to erase most, if not all, of an 
installation with the click of a button, preventing system 
conflicts and freeing up valuable disk space taken by unneeded 
software.  The other utility makes sure that your most valuable 
Windows information --your start-up files and personal 
configurations -- are secure and backed up in case you ever lose 
this information as the result of a botched installation or 
damaged files.
  Uninstallers
    What you need to know about uninstallers
    Faros 3 PLUS: our uninstaller of choice
  Emergency system backup
    Emergency backup for recovery from common software problems
    Our own F-A-S-T Emergency Windows Backup
  Other protection
    Antivirus software
    Delete protection: how to reclaim what you wish you hadn't 
     trashed
  
What you need to know about uninstallers
If you're already using an uninstall utility most of this 
material will be old hat to you.  We still recommend browsing the 
last two topics.  They contain important information every user 
should know.
     If you've never used such a utility, we recommend taking the 
full tour of this section.  You'll find it enlightening, and if 
you have any sense of adventure in your spirit you are almost 
certain to find it very useful as you wander the net.
    Windows' simple look is deceptive
    Windows 3.1/3.11 won't make it easy for you
    What about the Windows 95 uninstaller?
    How do uninstallers for Windows work?
    Two types of uninstallers: which one to choose?
  
Windows' simple look is deceptive
Not the easy job it once was
Removing DOS programs is rarely more difficult than erasing all 
the files in one directory.  If you know how to do that, in most 
cases you can confidently maintain your hard disk and keep it 
clean.  It's a skill most DOS users had to pick up in their first 
couple of months of use in order to competently maintain their 
machines.

     Even if you have good DOS and file management skills, do not 
assume that you are skilled enough to erase unneeded Windows 
programs.  About half the time, erasing the obvious files -- 
those in the directory containing the main program -- won't 
completely remove the software.  About one time in ten, depending 
on what kind of software you choose, erasing all or part of a 
program will have unwanted effects on other important programs on 
your system.  DOS may be messy, but Windows sweeps its dust under 
the rug so you can't see it.
Conflicts galore...part of life with Windows
Even more disturbing, some Windows programs install themselves in 
such a way that they make other programs impossible to use until 
they are removed from your hard disk.  This includes some very 
popular and useful programs recommended to First Train for the 
Internet travellers and users of this guide.  This sort of 
problem happens with DOS as well, but not nearly as often as it 
does with Windows.
     Finally there's economics.  Windows software takes up 
enormous amounts of space on your hard disk.  If you get serious 
about using your computer, chances are excellent that you'll 
eventually run out of space to store new data.  You'll either 
need to clean house or add another hard disk.  This will happen 
much less quickly if you keep your system clean by removing data 
and programs that you don't want or need any more.
  
  
Windows 3.1 won't make it easy for you
Windows 3.1/3.11 and Windows for Workgroups do not make it easy 
for you to determine what is and is not useful data.  Uninstaller 
utilities keep track of what you have, where the components are 
kept on your hard disk, and what changes were made to your system 
when the program installed itself.  It can use this information 
to hunt down and eliminate all traces of an unwanted program.
Why you need an uninstaller


If you buy new programs, subscribe to magazines with disks or 
CD's which include software, or plan to get software from the 
Internet on any kind of regular or semi-regular basis, eventually 
you will wish you had an uninstall utility.
     If you want to try new programs and can't afford to keep 
adding new hard disks (most newer computers can have up to four 
of them, older units will allow only two) each time you run out 
of space, eventually you will wish you had used an uninstall 
utility when you had the chance.
     And if you have ever installed a program and discovered that 
another favorite program stopped working the second you restarted 
your computer, you already wish you had an uninstall utility.
  
  
What about the Windows 95 uninstaller?
It's just not enough
Windows 95 comes with its own built-in installation tracking 
utility.  Like many things Microsoft, it demands that things be 
done its way and has some serious limitations that many users 
will never know about until it's too late.
     The Add/Remove Programs wizard will track installations of 
Windows 95 programs...provided the author has included the 
appropriate file that the wizard needs to track the process.  It 
will not track Windows 95 programs that do not include this file, 
and what's worse, if you try to install these programs using the 
wizard, it will not even warn you that the installation has not 
been tracked.

     This wizard will track installation of drivers and operating 
system components too...provided you install them using the 
wizard.  If you do not see the wizard during the installation, 
the software has not been tracked.
     It will track some 16-bit Windows programs designed to run 
on both old and new versions of Windows, but only if these 
programs include the file needed by the wizard to track the 
installation.
     Interestingly, while most Windows 3.1/3.11 uninstallers will 
leave traces of the old program behind when they uninstall 
(usually traces you won't mind or notice anyhow), they are every 
bit as effective for most programs than a dedicated Windows 95 
uninstaller.
Useless with programs which have already been installed


We repeat...the wizard will help you remove programs you install 
after upgrading to Windows 95...but only with programs 
specifically tailored for this wizard.  Even most new programs as 
of January 1, 1996 did not support Microsoft's uninstall wizard.
     It will be of no use to you with software you already have 
on your system.  It will only work with components of Windows 
95's operating system and accessories, and with programs you have 
not yet installed.
     Now that you know the facts, you have a choice.  You can 
live without an uninstaller and either pay someone to clean your 
hard disk of useless files every few months, or you can start 
using an uninstaller, keep your system free of clutter, and start 
enjoying the mountain of software available on the Internet 
without worrying where to put it all...or how to clean up after 
programs that just don't cut it.
  
  
How do uninstallers for Windows work?
     Uninstallers range from the ridiculously simple to the 
unbelievably complex.  But they all work in one of two different 
ways.
After-the-fact uninstallers
The more complex after-the-fact uninstallers check every file on 
your system against every other file, find out which files are 
strays or associated with particular programs, and give you 
choices about whether or not to erase them.  They can also check 
inside the files themselves for clues about what program or 
programs they are designed to be used with.  These programs can 
work with software already on your system.
     This type of uninstaller also demands a lot of knowledge 
about your system...either that or a lot of reading in order to 
get that knowledge.
Installation trackers


The simpler installation-tracking type of uninstaller -- the type 
we recommend -- works only with software which have not yet been 
installed.  You run this type of uninstaller before installing 
any new software.  First it takes a reading of every file in 
every critical area where Windows software can install itself.  
The program is left running while you install your new software.  
When the job is done you click a button on the uninstall utility 
which starts a second reading.  This second reading is compared 
against the first and the uninstaller creates a record of all 
changes made to your system.
This second method allows the uninstaller to keep a very accurate 
record of what went where during the installation procedure, and 
is smart enough to undo virtually anything that was done to your 
configuration, erase every single file associated with the 
software and every bit of configuration information added to your 
system during the installation process.
     These simpler, install-tracking uninstallers aren't always 
as thorough as the expensive, sophisticated commercial models 
(for example, they won't find and remove unneeded duplicate files 
left behind by previous installations) but they are much easier 
to use and understand.
    
Two types...which to choose?


Some people prefer to have one of each kind of uninstaller on 
their system, but the fact is that any quality uninstaller used 
as directed will do a pretty fair job of keeping your system 
clean.  Still, you should have an idea of what you're getting 
into before you start working with any of these tools, because as 
mentioned previously, any software designed for the purpose of 
erasing data from your system can produce unwanted side effects 
if it isn't used carefully.  If you can match the pros and cons 
of each type of uninstaller to your particular computing style, 
then you should be able to choose wisely between these two types.
Pros and cons of after-the-fact uninstallers


Can you use an uninstaller for programs already on your system?  
Yes.  Should you?  In most cases, our answer is no...but this 
depends on the uninstaller program you use and the software you 
want to remove.  
     There are many commercial programs, most in the US$50.00 
range, that claim to be able to remove almost any software 
package installed at almost any time.  If you have a big 
collection of software you'd like to prune back right now, it 
might be worth the investment.  But in tests done by some 
well-respected computing magazines, none received a perfect 
score.  In fact, some actually erased important files needed by 
other programs!  The ones that played it safe didn't do a 
thorough job.  On the other hand, they're easy to use.  You don't 
have to remember to run them before each new installation.
Pros and cons of install-tracking uninstallers
     Install-tracker-type uninstallers tend to cost much less.  
Faros Uninstaller 3 PLUS is a free program from author Periklis 
Koutsogiannis and Software Innovations.  Most install trackers 
cost from US$10.00 to US$25.00, and most of them do about the 
same job as Faros, although some are considerably less effective.


Check the information with this program...you may have an early 
version which will only work with pre-95 Windows versions.
     On the plus side, a well-written install tracker won't 
accidentally delete software used by another program simply 
because it can't find a connection.  It deletes what was 
installed and nothing else.  They're fast, effective, simple to 
use and require no knowledge of your system.  You don't have to 
(and shouldn't) use install trackers for programs you expect to 
keep for a long time.  You can reserve them only for testing new 
software.  They don't need updating, since a well-written install 
tracker should never have to be updated to accommodate minor 
changes to an operating system or new types of software available 
for an old operating system.  And they can usually be used on any 
version of Windows.
     On the minus side, some install trackers will erase files 
needed by other programs, since many programs need the same set 
of shared resource files.  This is no more than an inconvenience 
though.  At worst, you'll have to reinstall a program which uses 
one of these shared files, and it's not likely to happen that 
often, if ever.  You must also remember to run the uninstaller 
before actually installing the software.  And some install 
trackers do a less-than-perfect job of cleaning up configuration 
details on your system.  Once again, this should never be more 
than a minor inconvenience.
     We hope you see now why we recommend install-tracking 
uninstallers, even though they require a little more effort to be 
used effectively.
If you need help now...


Our advice if you need a lot of data removal done right now is to 
find a local expert, perhaps a college student or high school 
hotshot you can hire for an hour or two, to clean your hard disk 
for you.  Find someone who will know enough to get Windows back 
up and running if the wrong file gets erased.  Not all of the 
commercial uninstallers can do that for you, but we do know of 
some which have a habit of suggesting that you delete important 
data.
  
  
Faros: our uninstaller of choice
A gift from Software Innovations


The uninstaller supported by Dynamic Living Media is Faros 
Uninstaller.  It's a free program, a junior version of their more 
sophisticated AppControl product, which should provide all the 
uninstall protection the average novice to intermediate-level 
Windows user is ever likely to need.


It has one unfortunate drawback.  The version included in the 
January 1996 version of First Train for the Internet, 3 PLUS, was 
not Windows 95 compatible.  The author was putting the finishing 
touches on Faros 4 at the time and you may be able to find links 
to the newest version either on the First Train support site.
     Naturally if you can afford a sophisticated tool such as 
CleanSweep or Uninstaller, you might not want to bother with 
Faros.  But if you're a Windows 3.1/3.11 user on a budget, this 
is the "best-of-show" of free or low-cost uninstall utilities and 
we strongly recommend using it.
  
  
Emergency backup for Windows
Because Windows doesn't come with life-preservers
The next essential item to pack for your trip is emergency 
Windows backup software.  If you use a tool such as Safety Net, 
First Aid or another Windows utility that backs up your most 
important DOS and Windows files, you won't need this software.  
But if you don't have emergency backup software, sooner or later 
you're in for an unpleasant surprise.  It's the rare Windows user 
who doesn't get locked out of their system due to a botched 
installation, a crash at a critical moment that corrupts a 
Windows or DOS file, a virus infection or something as 
unpredictable as a stray gamma ray from the Sun damaging a 
critical spot on your hard disk.

Good news and bad news


     The bad news is that Windows and DOS don't come with 
emergency backup software, and the tool Microsoft makes available 
on the Windows 95 upgrade CD has proven to be less than 
satisfactory in our tests.

     The good news is that we have included click-and-go 
emergency Windows backup software with First Train for the 
Internet as a no-cost extra.  It's so important that we believe 
every computer user ought to have and use a tool like it, and 
until such time as we find a freeware program that does the job 
better we're making this software freely available to all from 
our support site.
  
  
Our own F-A-S-T Emergency Backup
A better spare-tire-and-wrench set


This utility is a special backup routine that will copy the most 
important files from your system to a floppy disk.  Once this 
disk has been made, you'll need to keep it updated regularly, 
which usually takes less than a minute each time you do it.  This 
disk will help you effortlessly recover from about 90 percent of 
the most serious software emergencies you might have, and 
possibly save you an enormous amount of time and money spent 
troubleshooting a faulty installation.
     We specialize in writing training and support software.  
We're not programmers.  So be aware that this software is a bit 
of a hack-together job.  But it works, and it has been tested and 
has already saved its users thousands of dollars in 
troubleshooting and service calls they would otherwise have 
needed.  If you ever get locked out of Windows, F-A-S-T Emergency 
Windows Backup will get you up and running again almost 
instantly.  You just have to remember to use it.
Note: F-A-S-T Emergency Windows Backup is not included with this 
version of PC Owner's Survival Guide.
  


One of the nicest features about DOS since version 6.0 is its 
ability to allow you to recover deleted files you wish you hadn't 
erased.  This button takes you to a section of Random Jottings 
where delete protection and undeleting is discussed in more 
detail.
Windows 95, of course, comes with delete protection as a standard 
feature, and you can unerase files dragged to the trash can by 
double-clicking on its desktop icon.  This section is 
specifically designed for Windows 3.1/3.11 users.


This help button takes you to a section of the guide where you'll 
learn about antivirus software.

Part 3: Computer and workplace ergonomics
     This unfinished guide to health, safety and comfort for 
professional computer users attempts to cover a wide range of 
topics.  Unfortunately not all are covered in depth.  Use the 
links to other sources for computer-related stress information 
found within this document.  (Section authored by Rae Telcher)
    General information
    Repetitive strain injury
    Tips for preventing and dealing with RSIs
    Creating a user-friendly workspace
    Monitor-related stressors
    Computer-related emissions
    Noise pollution
  
General information
    Medical disclaimer
    Philosphical issues: why bother at all?
    Seven areas of computer-related stress management
  
Creating a user-friendly workspace


                      Keyboard ergonomics  Wrist rests
                      Elbow rests
                      Relaxation: the best prevention
                      Alternative input devices
                     Mouse ergonomics
  
Monitor-related stressors
    Effects of monitor stress
    Eliminating glare with filters and screens
    Eliminating glare with common sense
    Flicker: what it is and what to do about it
    Fluorescent lighting and interference flicker
    Screen sway
    Flyback wear: a very serious problem
    Screen type, size and dot pitch
    Screen resolution
    Screen brightness
    Gauging your level of monitor stress
    Copy holders
    Color your (virtual) world
  
Computer-related emissions
  "Exposure to ELF (extremely low frequency) electric fields can 
  alter cellular physiological and behavioral events...At 
  present, studies serve as a warning that unnecessary exposure 
  to electric fields should be avoided...
  "It is recommended that efforts be made to limit exposure, 
  particularly for members of the general population, to levels 
  as low as can be reasonably achieved."
Environmental Health Criteria: 35,
Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) Fields,
World Health Organization, Geneva, 1984, pp.  18 and 88.
    An introduction to computer-related radiation
    Scalar-wave ELF emissions
    Medical foundation for ELF shielding
    Reduced emissions and energy savings
  
Medical Disclaimer
     This work is designed to provide information in regard to 
the subject matter discussed.  The author is an unlicensed, 
uncertified consultant whose expertise and qualifications extend 
only to offering general guidelines and suggesting possible 
avenues of individual exploration.  Except where specifically 
stated in the text, this work is not to be construed as 
authoritative or based on accepted medical research or proven 
scientific principles.  Every effort has been taken to insure 
that speculation, hearsay and conjecture are represented as such 
and not as proven facts.
     The concepts, problems and solutions discussed in this work 
are presented to educate and entertain.  Neither the author nor 
the publisher shall have liability or responsibility to any 
person or entity with respect to any loss or damage caused or 
alleged to be caused either directly or indirectly by misuse or 
misinterpretation of the information contained in this work.  Any 
therapies, activities or devices described herein are strictly 
adjunctive or complementary to medical treatment, and are to be 
used only after consultation with, and under the strict 
supervision of, a qualified medical practitioner.  Self-treatment 
is not advisable for any ailment, and the reader is urged to seek 
out the best possible medical assistance if and when symptoms 
described in this work present themselves.
  
  
Philosophical Issues: Why Bother At All?
Into our minds, out of our heads


The farther we get from nature, the more perils we create for 
ourselves and the harder we have to work to keep ourselves 
healthy and happy.  Computers are no exception.  The way they're 
used is one thing; the way they're built poses other problems.  
What computers do, what they have always been meant to do, is act 
as substitutes for our real brains.  Since their inception, we 
have tried to create and structure the computer as a mirror of 
the way we think, and to create and structure its hardware -- the 
interface --as a mirror of the way we move.
     It has been a process doomed to failure.  For starters, we 
are still learning how the human brain works.  Trying to create a 
substitute for the brain under these conditions is like trying to 
invent margarine without ever having tasted butter.  And if the 
computer itself is a poor representation of the human brain, the 
interface is doomed to be a poor fit for the human body.  If it 
were a good fit, the computer probably wouldn't work!
Satisfied with a poor fit


The sad truth is that we are trained by our culture to be 
satisfied with poor fit.  So it's no surprise to me that I 
encounter a lot of resistance when I speak to employers about the 
importance of ergonomics and computer-related stress.  Too many 
would rather get rid of a whiny employee or chalk up repetitive 
strain injuries to poor work habits than spend a few dollars 
improving the work environment.
     It's a damnable shame.  People are getting hurt.  And it's 
changing, because those same people are starting to win judgments 
from the Workmen's Compensation Board and their employers for 
work-related injuries.  I believe that we're going to see a lot 
of proof over the next few years that computers are a much 
greater stressor than is commonly believed, or even suspected, 
today.  That's sad, because it usually takes injuries to 
thousands of people to make us realize that a cultural 
institution is a health hazard.  Remember how long it took with 
cigarettes.
The biggest risk: the problems we still don't recognize


The problems we can't see or adequately measure in the present 
are always the ones we most wish we knew about after the fact.  
It's too easy to call up the ghosts of asbestos, urea 
formaldehyde insulation or coal tar dyes in food.  Two years ago, 
I may have needed to do so to make my point.  At that time, 
carpal tunnel syndrome was just another medical buzzword.  Now 
almost everyone who uses a computer knows what it means, at least 
in terms of physical suffering.
     Probably the most frightening tendency I see in employers 
(and fortunately I don't see it often because I don't usually get 
-- or accept -- their business) is defiant ignorance of ergonomic 
concerns of any kind once the office is functioning at an 
acceptable level.  The reasoning behind this defiance appears 
sound.  Make things easier in one area and the natives will get 
restless about something else.  No one will ever be completely 
satisfied.  And if no one is visibly, or at least provably ill, 
why fix what ain't broke?
     This is sound logic used to support an unsound argument.  
Sure enough, if you remove a major stressor from someone's life 
there will usually be a long sigh of relief.  But once the
person relaxes into a less stressful environment, they begin to 
notice more subtle problems that never bothered them before.
Making an inhuman task humanly tolerable


Working with the contemporary computer is not a task suited to 
humans, and as long as people rely on the digital beast there 
will be distress and its associated symptoms.  Any employer who 
takes action on these issues will almost certainly be met with 
another battery of complaints at a later date.  If they refuse to 
deal with the most pressing set of problems, their employees will 
never have the strength or confidence to confront them on subtler 
issues.  It's cheaper, at least over the short term, to avoid 
complaints rather than deal with them.
     It's probably more true of computers than most things in 
life that it's best not to mess with what works.  But 
computer-related stress doesn't leave visible marks, and illness 
and injury can be around for a long time, often chalked up to 
other things, before anyone wonders whether they might be related 
to workplace stressors.  By the time we realize something doesn't 
work, it's often too late for anything but damage control.
     I don't know whether it's better for a company's bottom line 
to ignore ergonomics completely or to make them a 
cost-is-no-object priority, but my guess is that neither is 
measurably more profitable in the long run.  I'll also guess, 
with the wish that I could be more certain, that the highest 
cost-benefit spikes occur near the extremes: at the bare minimum 
acceptable and the maximum possible within reason.  In a very 
real sense it's like raising a child: doing nothing is a recipe 
for eventual legal trouble; doing everything will bleed you dry.
Penny wise and dollar dumb


Any employer who responds only to the most serious and visible 
threats will eventually pay through occasional stress-related 
injuries, nuisance terminations, quitting/rehiring, and in many 
cases, lawsuits.  An employer who spends a small fortune on 
ergonomics will, on the other hand, save money through increased 
employee satisfaction and loyalty, enhanced productivity and 
reduced downtime.  How far a given employer goes with ergonomics 
and workplace health issues depends upon how much they value 
their employees as people and how far ahead they plan.  
Personally, I much prefer working with -- and for -- employers 
who strive toward long-term growth with a people-first 
philosophy.
Difficult choices


If this is your first serious look at computer and workplace 
ergonomics, you may be facing some difficult choices.  You'll 
have to decide who you can trust and how much hard evidence you 
require before taking action.  At the risk of straining my 
credibility, I believe very strongly that there are areas of 
human functioning which we have barely begun to acknowledge and 
aspects of life which we don't yet understand.  Twenty years ago, 
Kirlian photography, which captures the electromagnetic field 
around living beings on film, was a novelty.  Today it is gaining 
acceptance as a tool for medical diagnosis, and being used to 
monitor the effectiveness of medical treatment in many countries.  
Computer emissions can interfere with the human electromagnetic 
field.  How much evidence will you require before you decide that 
it's a potential hazard?
     Now think in these terms.  A few years back, when you were 
still working primarily with DOS-based applications, you may have 
been told that you needed to upgrade to the new 386s to bring 
office productivity up to where it should be.  The truth is that 
while some DOS functions benefit from the
increased speed, for example Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet calculations 
and WordPerfect's page-preview mode, many of them don't.  You may 
also have been told you needed $2,000 worth of color laser 
printer when a $750 inkjet printer would have done the job.  You 
may also have been sold a $600 word processor where the Write 
program built into Windows, which sold by itself for around $100, 
would have been more than adequate.
Overinvested and underinformed


Nearly half of my clients bought too much hardware or software 
based upon the recommendations of a colleague or computer 
professional.  If you've been quick to invest based upon expert 
advice in your physical plant, and often find that you've 
overinvested, it's consistent business practice to be just as 
open to advice regarding the maintenance, upkeep and long-term 
performance of your personnel, and just as willing to risk 
overinvesting in this area.
     (I don't apologize for referring to employees to numbers and 
raw resources here; this is business we're discussing after all, 
and the best long-term approach to business practice is almost 
always the most humane as well.)
     How you choose to proceed is up to you, but this report 
should help you make more informed decisions.  I personally 
prefer to err on the side of caution when possible.  I've wasted 
money on the occasional quack gadget from time to time, but the 
state of my health tells me that I've made a lot more good 
decisions than bad ones.  The proof of this pudding often needs a 
long time in the oven.
Scared smart


It's not fun to be motivated by fear, but it's often the only 
emotion that moves us to action.  I'm going to discuss a few 
computer-related stressors that you may never have heard of 
before, let alone consider important, and it's my hope that you 
are scared by them.  Our culture has a long and inglorious 
tradition in regard to stress management: the more we learn about 
stress, the more past damage we uncover and the bigger the bite 
we lose from our paycheques to cover the cost of cleanup.
     Computer-related ergonomics is an area of special concern to 
me, and it will probably be several years before you hear another 
consultant discussing the dangers of flat-wave emissions coming 
from the central processing chip or interference-flicker stress 
from fluorescent lighting.  It's up to you what you do to take 
care of your health and the health of your employees, but I'd 
rather risk losing a client or two than keep quiet about issues I 
believe in.
  
  
Seven areas of stress management
"Common sense prevails
where education fails."
-author unknown-
Common sense is only common
to those who have it.
-Anonymous-


There are seven major areas where the average home or office 
computing environment can be ergonomically enhanced or made 
safer.  They include:
      monitor type, condition and setup
      monitor placement
      mouse and keyboard ergonomics
      noise
      lighting
      desk and seating (furnishings; not included in this report)
      emissions protection
     None of them should be overlooked; all of them can be 
improved to the maximum reasonable degree for a one-time cost 
averaging from $500 to $1,000 per workstation; and there are free 
and under-$100 solutions in all of these areas.  Improvements in 
any area will contribute to enhanced safety, comfort and job 
satisfaction over the medium and long term.
     In addition, there are ways to improve work efficiency with 
exercises and relaxed work pressures around the computer.  I am 
not at all impressed with Japanese-style management; enforced 
exercise periods and structured group stress breaks seem almost 
fascistic to me.  I prefer offering employees the opportunity and 
tools to take care of themselves; it's up to them whether they 
can -- or choose to -- take advantage of that opportunity.  This 
aspect of workplace stress will be discussed at the end of this 
report.
  
  
Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)
     The following was taken from Dan S. Wallach's (1994) Typing 
Injury FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions): General Info USENET 
news.answers.  Available via http://www.CS.Princeton.EDU/~dwallac
h/tifaq/
     "Specific injuries you may have heard of (note: most 
  injuries come in two flavors: acute and chronic.  Acute 
  injuries are severely painful and noticeable.  Chronic 
  conditions have less pronounced symptoms but are every bit as 
  real.):
     "Tenosynovitis: an inflammation of the tendon sheath.  
  Chronic tenosynovitis occurs when the repetitive activity is 
  mild or intermittent: not enough to cause acute inflammation, 
  but enough to exceed the tendon sheath's ability to lubricate 
  the tendon.  As a result, the tendon sheath thickens, gets 
  inflamed, and you've got your problem.
     "Tendonitis: an inflammation of a tendon.  Repeated tensing 
  of a tendon can cause inflammation.  Eventually, the fibers of 
  the tendon start separating, and can even break, leaving behind 
  debris which induces more friction, more swelling, and more 
  pain.  Sub-acute tendonitis is more common, which entails a 
  dull ache over the wrist and forearm, some tenderness, and it 
  gets worse with repetitive activity.
     "Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: the nerves that run through your 
  wrist into your fingers get trapped by the inflamed muscles 
  around them.  Symptoms include feeling pins and needles, 
  tingling, numbness, and even loss of sensation.  CTS is often 
  confused for a diffuse condition.
     "Adverse Mechanical Tension: also known as 'neural tension', 
  this is where the nerves running down to your arm have become 
  contracted and possibly compressed as a result of muscle spasms 
  in the shoulders and elsewhere.  AMT can often misdiagnosed as 
  or associated with one of the other OOS (occupational overuse 
  syndrome) disorders.  It is largely reversible and can be 
  treated with physiotherapy (brachial plexus stretches and 
  trigger point therapy).
     "Others: for just about every part of your body, there's a 
  fancy name for a way to injure it.  By now, you should be 
  getting an idea of how OOS conditions occur and why.  Just be 
  careful: many inexperienced doctors misdiagnose problems as 
  Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, when in reality, you may have a 
  completely different problem.  Always get a second opinion 
  before somebody does something drastic to you (like surgery).
     "Why does Occupational Overuse Syndrome occur?  Here's the 
  theory:
     "Normally, your muscles and tendons get blood through 
  capillaries which pass                          among the 
  muscle fibers.  When you tense a muscle, you restrict the blood 
  flow.  By the time you're exerting 50% of your full power, 
  you're completely restricting your blood flow.
     "Without fresh blood, your muscles use stored energy until 
  they run out, then they switch to anaerobic (without oxygen) 
  metabolism, which generates nasty by-products like lactic acid, 
  which cause pain.
     "Once one muscle hurts, all its neighbors tense up, perhaps 
  to relieve the load.  This makes sense for your normal sort of 
  injury, but it only makes things worse with repetitive motion.  
  More tension means less blood flow, and the cycle continues.  
  Another by-product of the lack of blood flow is tingling and 
  numbness from your nerves.  They need blood too.
     "Anyway, when you're typing too much, you're never really 
  giving a change for the blood to get back where it belongs, 
  because your muscles never relax enough to let the blood 
  through. 
  Stress, poor posture, and poor ergonomics, only make things 
  worse.
     "The most important element of both prevention and recovery 
  is to reduce tension in the muscles and tendons.  This requires 
  learning how to relax.  If you're under a load of stress, this 
  is doubly important.  Tune out the world and breath deep and 
  regular.  Relaxing should become a guiding principle in your 
  work: every three minutes take a three second break.  Every 
  three minutes, take a three-second break.  Really, do it every 
  three minutes.  It's also helpful to work in comfortable 
  surroundings, calm down, and relax.
     NOTES: Internet World Wide Web users will find this FAQ 
  (Frequently Asked Questions sheet) available at: 
  http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/hyper-text/faq/usenet/typing-inju
  ry-faq/top.html (Dan Wallach's page) 
  http://www.cs.princeton.edu/grad/ dwallach/).  For other 
  information, try ftp.csua.berkeley.edu, an extensive anonymous 
  FTP archive, including the typing injury FAQ, alternative input 
  device information (descriptions, reviews, and GIF images of 
  alternative keyboards and mice), and some software.  Maintained 
  by Dan Wallach dwallach@cs.princeton.edu.

  
Preventing and dealing with RSIs
The latest buzzword
Unless you've been living in the mountains for the past two 
years, chances are you've heard at least some of the fuss about 
repetitive strain injury in the workplace, and carpal tunnel 
syndrome in particular.  It can affect almost anyone who performs 
the same repetitive manual tasks day-in and day-out who is not 
protected with supports or proper equipment.  I saw the career of 
a capable rock guitarist destroyed in a summer of loading steel 
onto trucks.  I've either seen first-hand or heard of it 
affecting everyone from workers in chicken-processing plants to 
robot arm operators.
     The group probably most prone to repetitive strain injuries 
to the wrists and hands are computer workers, data entry clerks 
and typists.  Injury usually results from holding your hands with 
the muscles tensed and the wrists bent backward while you type 
over a long period of time.
No palpable means of support


Strain to wrists, forearms and shoulders can also occur as a 
result of typing without proper support.  Hunt-and-peck typists 
often suffer from stiffness in the upper back and shoulders.  The 
only long-term solution is to retrain yourself to be a ten-finger 
typist so you can rely upon the wrist rest to support your arms 
rather than your back and shoulders.
     Holistically speaking, if you try to deal with these 
problems as a preventive measure and you are not currently 
experiencing symptoms, chances are you will start having symptoms 
when you adopt proper support and technique.  The most common 
symptom is irritability.  This is not a sign that you're doing 
something wrong, but often a symptom of withdrawal.  With less of 
a load to carry, your nervous system becomes more sensitive to 
other stimuli.  Things which may not have bothered you much 
before may suddenly become intolerable.  Unfortunately, this 
reaction doesn't fall under the scope of this report, so you'll 
have to find some way to diagnose and deal with it on your own.
Why RSI's occur


Why does RSI happen at all?  You don't hear about professional 
pianists getting CTS, and they appear to break every rule in the 
book for healthy keyboard posture.  The reason pianists seldom 
get CTS is because their hands, arms and shoulders don't remain 
in a fixed position for prolonged periods.  The changing emotions 
in the music also change the way they use their muscles, and even 
which muscles they use.
     In other words, pianists get a workout.  What typists endure 
is torture in comparison.  Less energy is required to press a 
computer key than a manual typewriter key, so rather than a 
tense-relax cycle each time you strike a key, the muscles get 
locked into a constant state of low-level tension that will 
ultimately try to make itself permanent.  It's simply part of how 
our bodies adapt to stress and activity.
Low-cost, common-sense preventive treatment


Fortunately, a little common sense and some inexpensive 
accessories will virtually insure that you'll never suffer from 
carpal tunnel syndrome caused by your computer.  The key lies in 
changing the wrist angle so that the wrist is either straight or 
breaks forward when typing, or to relax the forearm and reduce
tension in the area surrounding the critical nerve bundles.
     Changing the wrist angle can be as simple as retraining 
yourself to hold your hands higher off the desk as you type.  But 
if the heels of your hands are not supported, you create a 
condition of prolonged tension in upper torso muscles.  Depending 
on your physiology and response to stress, this could cause 
cramping or stiffness under the arms, between the shoulder 
blades, in the upper back, in the arms themselves or in all these 
locations.
     This will not go away until the problem is solved, If 
symptoms appear to be reduced after a time, it may be because the 
muscles have permanently locked themselves into position.  You'll 
often experience a warning that this is about to happen in the 
form of mild electric shocks or stabs, coldness, slight pain or 
numbness in the associated area.  Once the muscles lock, 
physiotherapy may be the only way to unlock them, and it will 
probably be a painful process as blood starts to flow again into 
suffocated tissues.
  
  
Keyboard ergonomics
Covering the angles


Changing your wrist angle shouldn't require retraining your 
muscles.  Instead it can be accomplished through changing the 
position of the keyboard or adding support to it.  Ideal keyboard 
height is as low to the lap as possible.  The angle between your 
shoulder and wrist should be greater than 90 degrees for optimum 
comfort and endurance.
     Some people prefer a low chair and a high desktop for 
handwriting and reading.  Setting the keyboard on the desk in 
this situation is a recipe for stiff muscles and a set-up for 
CTS.  If the chair can't be raised far enough to create a large 
enough wrist/shoulder angle, an under-desk keyboard drawer should 
be installed.  Some desks can be lowered by removing their 
casters; I've done this to my desk at home.
     Keyboard drawers should be deep enough to accommodate the 
keyboard with three inches to spare.  This extra three inches 
will be needed by the wrist rest, which I'll discuss in a moment.  
They should also be wide enough to hold both the keyboard and a 
mouse pad.
Getting a rise from your keyboard?


Most computer keyboard have riser or elevator tabs on them which 
allow the back to be raised.  This sets the keyboard on an angle, 
giving it a feel more like that of a manual typewriter.  These 
tabs can be folded back into the keyboard, and this could reduce 
wrist break by just enough to make the difference between safety 
and pain.
     (I have a confession to make at this point.  I've been 
computing for more than two years with the riser tabs opened out.  
As I was writing, I decided to see how it would feel to type 
without them.  I was surprised by what I discovered.  Instantly I 
found myself relying much more upon the wrist rest for support, 
which can only be a good thing.  After a few minutes of 
adjustment my typing speed and familiarity with my desktop is 
back to normal.  While this is just my own personal experience, 
this extra reliance upon the wrist rest is enough to make me 
wonder whether all computer keyboards shouldn't be used with the 
riser tabs folded away.  Any change in keyboard position will 
require a short period of adjustment, and your computing may feel 
cramped for anywhere from a day to a week, but it's still better 
than not changing a stressful posture.)

  
Wrist rests
Mandatory equipment for all typists


Virtually every computer user who types with more than two 
fingers can and should use a wrist rest.  A wrist rest is a pad 
or platform which butts onto the front edge of your keyboard and 
provides support for the heels of your hands while you type.  
This support relieves stress to wrists, shoulders and upper back, 
and forces your wrists to bend at a more natural angle while 
typing.
     No more than two years ago, wrist rests were boutique items 
costing up to $60 each.  Today you can find them in almost every 
computer shop or department store at prices as low as $3.  At 
that price there's no excuse for not having one for every 
computer in the office, and your home system as well.  Even 
computer manufacturers have gotten into the act; some keyboards, 
computer desks and notebook computers come with wrist rests 
designed right in.
You might not need a wrist rest


One- and two-finger hunt-and-peck typists probably don't need 
wrist rests, mainly the wrists break forward naturally when you 
type in this fashion, but as we'll see later, this style of 
typing has drawbacks of its own.
     There are two main types of wrist rests: padded and hard 
platform.  Which one you should choose depends upon your 
biochemical physiology more than your muscular makeup.  If you're 
the type who gets a lot of rashes, sweat rashes in particular, 
stay away from hard plastic or steel wrist rests,.  Even padded 
rests upholstered in vinyl or leather will probably be 
unsuitable.  The cheap foam-rubber variety with the fabric 
surface will probably be more comfortable during long typing 
sessions.  If you're more prone to eczema, dry skin and itching, 
a smooth, hard surface will probably be more comfortable, 
although it won't provide the same degree of balanced support 
offered by a padded wrist rest.
Two pads are often better than one


In cases where pain has already begun to appear in the wrists and 
hands, one wrist rest may not be enough.  You might have to 
choose one of the pre-cut foam pads instead of the 
leather-covered tray-type rests and stack two of them on top of 
each other, or rig up some extra elevation on an existing wrist 
rest until your wrists bend far enough forward that you can type 
without discomfort.
    
Elbow rests
The more support the better


Wrist rests simply aren't enough for many people.  This will be 
particularly noticeable if a person using a wrist rest, or pair 
of stacked wrist rest pads, finds that the heels of their hands 
chafe while using the keyboard.
     This chafing is nearly always a sign of overwork, but it can 
have other meanings as well.  Skin sensitivity (which could in 
turn have a number of other causes) may also play a role.  But 
until the root cause of the problem is dealt with, management of 
the irritation is critical.  This chafing will prompt the typist 
to raise their hands off the wrist rest in an attempt to avoid 
irritation, causing stress to shoulder and back muscles.
     In order to reduce the total level of stress, it's important 
to take pressure off the wrists.  The best way to do that is to 
distribute some of the pressure to the elbows and forearms by 
giving them something to rest on.
     Probably the best solution is a suitable desk chair.  This 
chair should not merely have armrests, although that will do in a 
pinch, but adjustable armrests.  Preferably the armrests should 
not merely move up and down to correspond with the natural height 
of the typist's elbows, but slant inward somewhat across the 
typist's lap.
Forced by the hardware into bad posture


Watch a typist working at a desk without elbow or forearm support 
and you can see how this works.  Standard typewriter keyboards 
tend to pull one's elbows in toward the waist.  For women in 
particular, this causes in the elbows to be pulled tightly in 
toward the waist, well away from the support offered by standard 
armrests.  This effect is not quite as pronounced with ergonomic 
keyboard designs, but it is still visible.  The natural tendency 
is to pull one's arms in away from the armrests.  Only an armrest 
design which slants inward over the lap will properly compensate 
for this effect.  Ideally it should be positioned so that the 
armrests rise up just high enough to take the desired level of 
pressure off the heels of the hands, and slanted in far enough to 
allow for the hands to address the keyboard as naturally as 
possible.
     These chairs are not cheap either, but once again they can 
be considered a lifetime purchase, and an investment in the 
health and well-being of the employee.
Any port in a gathering storm


A good second alternative is the use of unnatural support as an 
interim or temporary solution.  Any chair with armrests that do 
not rise beyond the height of the desk is suitable for support.  
Since most keyboards are still positioned an inch or two higher 
than the ideal height, and most armrests provide the same excess 
height, a chair with armrests can be added to the workspace to 
match the desk height.  The armrests will probably be positioned 
well away from the body as well.  The typist will have to swing 
their arms out to set them on the armrests and this will result 
in a highly unnatural address angle to standard keyboards and 
even most ergonomic keyboards as well.  This is not good for 
long-term use, but it does allow the typist a choice of two 
postures which can be alternated to spread the overall stress 
load and reduce the potential for long-term injury until a 
long-term solution is affordable.
Rolling your own supports


A cheap substitute for a proper ergonomically-designed steno 
chair can be rigged using a standard metal office chair with 
armrests.  First, the wooden slats can be replaced with 3/4 
plywood slats three to five inches in width (the smaller the 
typist, the wider the slats) which are bolted so that the excess 
width closes in on the typist's waist.  Wrapping the wooden slats 
with several thicknesses of terry cloth towelling will provide 
fairly natural and comfortable padding.  A keyboard tray can then 
be attached with a swing-out arm or removable hinge to the front 
of the chair to provide the correct keyboard height in relation 
to the armrest height.  An inch or two of stiff foam can be added 
to the seat itself to bring the typist up to a proper height, and 
a footrest can be added for proper posture.  All this guy-rigging 
will not be pretty, but it works, and it's a lot cheaper than a 
$300-600 ergonomically correct steno chair.


Sadly, I do not foresee prices on quality chair designs dropping 
until demand rises considerably above current levels, meaning 
that a great many typists may have to resort to this homemade 
solution for short- to medium-term relief.
  

  
Relaxation: the best prevention
Some people just aren't cut out for this


It's been my experience that relaxed typists don't suffer from 
typing ailments nearly as much as high-strung typists.  
(High-strung people probably aren't suited to clerical, 
data-entry and terminal-intensive work in the first place, but 
that's another story.) Typing under stress will magnify the 
effects of any improper keyboard posture or lack of support.  If 
stress overload is a chronic condition with you, as it is with a 
large number of people, it is doubly important that you protect 
yourself with proper supports.
     You can coax a little extra relaxation out of your hands and 
wrists by engaging in sports or games that use these muscles on a 
regular basis.  It could be anything from table tennis to rock 
climbing to a couple of minutes of wrist curls with a dumbbell a 
couple of times a day at the office.  This will have another 
unusual side effect at first: as your wrists and hands begin to 
relax, your typing speed will actually drop.  It might even 
plummet.  Once again, this is nothing to be concerned about.  
It's a side effect of your body's adaptation to using different 
muscles, or just less muscle, for a job that used to be more 
demanding.  Stimulating yourself with music or conversation with 
coworkers will help to distract your consciousness and give your 
muscles more freedom to re-learn healthy typing posture.
An investment that pays off in many ways


A note to employers: if you're concerned by this talk about 
reduced performance when adopting healthy typing posture, be 
aware that this temporary reduction in job performance will be 
more than compensated over the long term.  Healthy typing posture 
actually allows for increased typing speed once the muscles are 
retrained.  I'm an exceptional case, but my typing speed dropped 
from 40 to 50 words per minute to under 20 when I first changed 
my keyboard posture.  Today it sits at about 60 to 80wpm.  I've 
been typing since I was ten, so this improvement was not a 
natural result of experience.  And for the first time in my life, 
I don't need to look at the keyboard.
  
  
Alternative input devices
Ergonomically designed keyboards


One of the most marked side effects of my increased typing speed 
is how it has changed my perception of the keyboard.  I now find 
standard computer keyboards quite ungainly.  I've been looking 
long and lovingly at the new ergonomically designed keyboards 
from Microsoft, Apple and others.  If I did not have two fingers 
missing on my right hand, I'd probably own one of these new 
keyboards right now.
     You've probably seen one or the other.  The new 
Apple/Microsoft keyboards use a split-keyboard design which 
decreases stress by placing the keys in a more natural position 
in relation to your hands.  I have become an ardent supporter of 
these devices for any ten-finger typist (or would-be ten-finger 
typist) who does depends upon a keyboard for their livelihood.  
There are custom keyboard and data entry units available in a 
variety of shapes, sizes and prices.  The best mid-priced unit 
I've seen is the Ergo-Key, a keyboard that tilts the two halves 
of the keyboard up into an inverse V.
     Once you get used to the unusual layout of the keys, the 
feel of these alternative input devices is extremely comfortable 
and over the long term actually contributes to improved typing 
speed.  At about $130 for the Microsoft keyboard to $300 for the 
Ergo-Key to over $1,000 for some custom-made input devices, these 
keyboards are not cheap.  But if they are well-maintained they 
are a lifetime investment that will pay off handsomely in terms 
of reduced pain and irritation and increased efficiency.
A wish for kindness


At the very least, I'd like to see these offered to employees who 
use standard-type DIN-connector computer terminals on an employee 
purchase plan.  At best, I'd like to see custom-built keyboards 
offered on a buy-back arrangement to all employees who use a 
keyboard more than two hours a day, so that the employee can 
purchase their custom keyboard at its depreciated value and take 
it with them if they decide to leave the company.
     These items used to be reserved for paraplegics and those 
handicapped by other injuries, but some of these suppliers are 
discovering that their clientele are more and more frequently 
victims of RSI's who must have access to their computers.  As of 
late 1992, a fact sheet and price list was published by Dan 
Wallach for those interested in alternative input devices.  The 
file, typing-injury-faq/keyboards, can be requested through 
SOREHAND@UCSFVM.earn.
For more information...


For additional information, you can also seek out Don Sellers' 
Zap!  How Your Computer Can Hurt You--And What You Can Do About 
It from Peachpit Press, Inc., 1994.  ISBN 1-55609-021-0.  His 
email address is dsellers@netcom.com.  Emil Pascarelli and 
Deborah Quilter wrote Repetitive Strain Injury, a Computer User's 
Guide, published by John Wiley Sons, ISBN 0-471-59533-0.  You can 
also look for Stephanie Brown's, Preventing Computer Injury: The 
Hand Book from Ergonome, ISBN 1-884388-01-9.  A free packet of 
information is also available from the US Government.  Ask for: 
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Selected References (March 1989), NIOSH 
Publications Dissemination, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, 
Ohio 45226.  Thanks to Dan Wallach for this information.
  
  
Mouse ergonomics
Mouse rests?  You've got to be kidding.


Yes, you heard me right, the mouse rest, and I confess that when 
I first heard about the idea I thought someone had taken the 
whole repetitive strain issue just a tad too far.  I don't need 
one personally, but having observed the way many of my clients 
handle and hold a mouse, I'm beginning to understand the need for 
this product.
     Many mouse pads now come with a raised wrist pad to prevent 
the wrist from breaking backward during use.  I confess that I 
never once considered the possibility that it might have a 
purpose, but I know several users who swear by them.
     Whether you should use one depends upon how you hold the 
mouse.  As a long-time user, I've grown so comfortable with it 
that I drag a lot of my hand across the desk as I'm using my 
mouse.  Most importantly, the heel of my mouse hand never rises 
off the desktop.  My wrist doesn't break.  I have no personal 
need for a mouse rest.
More important than many users realize


Not so with many less-experienced users, particularly if they use 
a fabric-surfaced mouse pad.  These pads make it rather 
uncomfortable to drag your hand along the desktop while you use 
the mouse, so many users get into the habit of resting the heel 
of their hand on the pad and breaking their wrist sharply 
backward as they use the mouse.
     Some employers, usually for rather trivial reasons, insist 
upon the use of a mouse pad.  I've never liked them and never 
used them for more than short periods.  I much prefer moving the 
mouse over a hard, smooth desk surface, or even over a cardboard 
sheet used as a coaster.  My favorite mouse pads are the smooth, 
Teflon-coated variety.  Setting the mouse on a hard, smooth 
surface is the most natural way to use the mouse, and results in 
the least stressful grip.  But if you must use a mouse pad, 
either use one with a mouse rest or rig up a makeshift wrist rest 
high enough to prevent your wrists from breaking backward.  The 
Mouse Arena was one of the first devices to use a mouse rest, but 
it may not be nearly high enough for many people.  In fact, none 
of the mouse rests I've seen offer enough elevation to provide 
proper wrist support for particularly high-strung users.
Trackballs demand more natural posture


If you use a desktop trackball instead of a mouse, you probably 
won't require support.  You can lean into a trackball in a way 
you can't with a mouse, and this extra pressure eases the stress 
on tendons in the wrist.  Pen mice offer a similar degree and 
type of strain relief.
     Another way to reduce mouse stress is to choose the right 
mouse.  Sicos and Microsoft build mice designed to support the 
hand and reduce strain.  These mice are raised at the front so 
that the palm sits firmly on the body of the mouse.  This reduces 
tension in the wrist.  At the other extreme, I've tried fairly 
costly mice from Logitech and Dexxa which were almost torture to 
use for long periods.  The Microsoft and Sicos mice at $50 to 
$100 at this writing, depending on the model, features and 
retailer, are two to four times costlier than generic replacement 
mice, but they are also such a joy to use that ordinary mice feel 
clumsy and uncomfortable in comparison.  Both are sold retail in 
right-handed models; both can be special-ordered for lefties.
An irritation your muscles actually like


Shifting back and forth between mouse and keyboard can be 
irritating for creative or detailed work where concentration is 
critical.  But this movement helps spread the workload among the 
muscles.  One problem I suffered at a time when I was heavily 
dependent upon the mouse was a condition called mouse shoulder.
     The fine movements required by the mouse require relaxation.  
If you have not participated in physical activity recently, this 
fine movement can make other muscles in the areas affected feel 
jumpy, twitchy or even spasmodic.  If they're not exercised, 
they'll eventually lock into a cramped position in order to 
permit the necessary fine movements.  This cramping ultimately 
results in pain, and setting the mouse aside for a few days while 
the muscles unwind seems to be the best way to handle the 
problem.  Fortunately I know of no cases where this problem was 
nearly as severe as carpal tunnel syndrome, but it is something 
to watch for if you use the mouse a lot or play a lot of 
mouse-driven games.  Excessive joystick use can result in similar 
problems.  Ask anyone who's ever stayed up all night with Flight 
Simulator, Doom or Wolfenstein.
  

  
Effects of monitor stress
It's not just the eyes that suffer


Anything that stresses the eyes or the visual cortex of the brain 
will have repercussions on the entire nervous system.  The 
problem with nervous system complaints is that they're damnably 
difficult to trace back to the source.  If you have unusually 
good eyes, monitor stress might not manifest itself in the eyes 
or even the head.  It might show up as diarrhea or hypersensitive 
skin, increased irritability or hostility, or even an unnatural 
feeling of strength or weakness.
     The difficulty in tracing these complaints often results in 
nothing being done to improve the environment until the exact 
cause of the problem can be isolated.  That creates another 
dilemma: most nervous complaints have a root cause plus several 
environmental triggers.  Eliminating one environmental trigger 
may reduce symptoms below the conscious level, but if the root 
cause is untreated they'll reappear later, leading you to believe 
you've done nothing at all to help the problem when in fact you 
have.
A dangerous and insensitive attitude


This is a dangerous and insensitive attitude.  In actual fact, 
eliminating one stressor will have a definite positive effect.  
It buys time for the body to heal or build up defenses, or simply 
a few weeks or months of reduced symptoms.
     Even if symptoms do come back, they won't be as severe as 
they would have been with the extra stressor.  Anything you can 
do to remove or prevent negative stress is worthwhile.  In your 
creative department, it often means providing staff with the 
highest performance they can comfortably handle so that boredom 
and waiting don't result in mistakes and frustration.  In all 
departments, it means providing the safest, most natural work 
environment your budget can support.
     It's time that more employers began looking at workplace 
stress from an economic standpoint, not through the lens of 
personal work ethics or tradition.  A small change that reduces 
stress by one percent should result in an average of a little 
more than one fewer sick day per employee per year.  If this 
reduction requires replacement of every monitor in the office 
with low-radiation units and provision of electromagnetic 
shielding devices for every employee at a total cost of $400 per 
person, the investment will be fully repaid in less than two 
years based on a lost-productivity value of $20 per hour.

  
Eliminating glare with filters and screens
Fabric mesh glare screens: only for the desperate


Let's start with the painfully obvious.  Take your expensive $30 
fiber mesh glare screen and toss it.  They provide only the 
barest reduction in glare, and they also add stress to your view.  
These fibers are supposed to be woven so finely that you can't 
actually see them.  In a way, that's true...you don't see them 
consciously.  But they do register on your visual cortex.  Fabric 
glare screens also have a slight fuzzing effect on the image that 
reaches your eyes.
     Filtering out unwanted visual information takes energy.  
It's a negative stressor in this case since our bodies are not 
yet genetically adapted to appreciate this kind of visual input.  
Although it might seem minor, glare screen distortion is 
something you can usually do without or work around.  Polarized 
screens made of plastic or glass are better than fiber mesh, but 
they may still not be enough.  Test carefully before buying.
Non-glare screens: usually a disappointment
Non-glare screens are supposed to eliminate the need for glare 
filters, but as most owners will tell you, they're usually a 
disappointment.  These screens are burnished by grinding which 
removes the gloss, but this grinding is also visible at a 
subconscious level as tiny grains of sand, or in the case of bad 
grinding jobs, as very fine streaks.
     A newer generation of glare filters are actually beginning 
to do a reasonable job at a reasonable price.  Many office supply 
stores now carry polarized glass filters which actually reduce 
glare and emissions.  They use the same polarization used in 
sunglasses as a way to reduce glare, and radiation reduction is 
generally achieved by adding lead to the glass, just like 
lead-glass crystal.  At this writing, the polarized glass screens 
range from $35-50 and the same models with leaded glass from 
$70-100.  It's still not cheap, but it's considerably less than 
they sold for no more than two years ago.
  
  
Eliminating glare with common sense
Rearranging the furniture


Reflected light is usually most visible on the top half of the 
screen because that's where the screen's curvature catches the 
glow of office lighting and reflected sunlight.  Much of this 
glare can be reduced by lowering the height of the monitor or 
changing its angle.  There's nothing wrong, relatively speaking, 
with raising the back of the monitor so that it tilts downward 
toward the desk, particularly if it alters the glare angle enough 
to kill reflected light.  In most cases, a downward tilt on the 
monitor and a makeshift hood of paper, cardboard or sheet plastic 
will put an end to reflective glare.
     Generally speaking, the fewer layers of filtration you can 
put between your eyes and the computer screen, the better.  You 
can't escape the fact that there's a layer of glass (or, on a 
laptop, plastic) between you and the screen surface, but you can 
usually reduce or eliminate unnecessary glare without adding 
extra barriers.
Ideal lighting positions and conditions


                       The ideal position for lighting either a 
                       home or office workspace is behind and 
                       above the user and out of the field of 
                       vision.  Unfortunately, most people have 
                       wide enough peripheral vision that 
                       anything other than ceiling-mounted 
                       fixtures will create glare.  The ideal 
                       light source is natural, through a 
                       skylight or window.  Windows should be 
                       ceiling-mounted or north-facing so that 
                       direct sunlight is not a problem, but this 
                       isn't possible if the south-facing 
                       high-rise across the street is covered in 
                       glass.If you're lighting from a single 
source, you'll often get shadows which result in high-contrast 
areas in your field of vision.  These shadows can be reduced with 
a second light source or through the use of fluorescent tubes if 
you don't mind the flicker, but they will add a second possible 
source of glare.
  
  
Flicker: what it is and what to do about it
Not something the average user notices


Most color monitor screens flicker at a rate of 35 times per 
second.  If you've ever noticed the way TV screens and monitors 
flicker when they're shown on film or videotape, you've seen how 
this works.  This flicker is yet another stressor.  
Unfortunately, there's no way to eliminate it with today's 
monitor technology, so how you deal with it depends upon which 
side effects you find most tolerable.
     If you're relaxed, overworked or part of a creative 
profession, at some point you'll become acutely aware of this 
flicker.  Visible flicker is caused by a low-speed (and 
lower-cost) electron gun that only redraws the screen about 35 
times per second.  (Actually the screen is painted 70 times per 
second.  The flicker comes from the gun painting every other line 
on each pass.) This is called interlacing.  It's supposed to 
happen faster than the human eye can detect, but an individual's 
optical sensitivity changes from moment to moment.  Creative 
people seem to spot flicker instantly in any monitor; high-strung 
people tend to notice it more when they look at the screen out 
the corners of their eyes; most people seem to see it most 
vividly under dim fluorescent lighting.
An often unnecessary irritation


The flicker itself is a sensory irritant as much as a direct 
nervous stressor.  If the screen flashed at a rate of six to 
twelve times per second, it would probably put you to sleep, 
because that's your brainwave rate in relaxation and sleep.  
Flashing light at rates from 14 to 21 cycles per second tends to 
produce an increase in alertness.  As the vibration rate rises 
beyond the rate of normal human alertness, people tend to feel a 
sort of unfocussed irritation.  At 35 cycles per second, subtle 
brain functions can be affected.  These effects are generally not 
felt consciously since the effects do not take place at a level 
anyone but a yoga master might notice.  Still, if achievement of 
higher consciousness is a priority in your life, it's probably 
wise to avoid computer monitors and TV screens and stick with 
passive laptop screens which don't flicker at all.
Who will appreciate non-interlaced displays
Those most bothered by flicker tend to be people who work in 
creative professions, where any unnatural stimulus is unwelcome; 
or graphic arts, where there is intense visual focus on small 
screen details.  It's safe to say that a non-interlaced monitor 
that paints the screen 60 to 70 times per second is an excellent 
investment for anyone needing minimal external stimulation.  At 
this writing, non-interlaced monitors are generally $50 to $100 
more than comparable interlaced monitors.


NOTE: Most amber monochrome (non-color) screens flicker at a rate 
of 60 to 70 cycles per second and are not nearly as stressful as 
inexpensive color monitors.


I also advise non-interlaced monitors for parents, since children 
may be more susceptible to the neurological effects of screen 
flicker at 35 cycles per second (cps).
     Many people with non-interlaced monitors are not getting the 
performance they paid for.  You can't just plug most 
non-interlaced monitors into your existing setup and expect the 
flicker to disappear.  You may also have to adjust the graphics 
adapter card which attaches your monitor to the motherboard of 
your computer.  There's often a little jumper or switch on these 
cards, shown in the card's manual,
which changes your card to allow the monitor to operate in 
non-interlaced mode.
Other changes might be needed


Newer monitors may require that you run a piece of software which 
configures the graphics adapter card for non-interlaced 
operation.  You may have to change your video drivers for Windows 
as well, particularly if you've been using the high-color drivers 
offering 65,000 or 16 million colors, because the video adapter 
card may not support non-interlaced operation at these higher 
color levels.  Also be aware that some older VGA adapters do not 
support non-interlaced monitors at all, meaning you'll have to 
replace the card to get a non-interlaced display from your 
monitor.
     There may also be a performance tradeoff as well.  Since the 
card is working twice as hard to send data to the screen, you may 
notice significant speed reductions in some graphics operations 
when you switch to non-interlaced mode.  In general I recommend 
upgrading the graphics adapter card than to go back to normal 
interlaced operation, particularly if you work in a creative 
profession.
  
  
Fluorescent lighting and flicker
Two light sources at war with your nerves


There's another type of flicker almost no one in the field ever 
discusses.  In most offices, lighting is supplied by fluorescent 
tubes.  These tubes flicker sixty times per second as the current 
alternates from positive to negative.  Some monitors, 
particularly older multisync models, flicker at the same 60-cycle 
rate, but most flicker at a different rate, usually 70 cps.  Like 
two sets of ripples on a pond, the two waves cancel each other 
out or amplify each other as the ON and OFF peaks in their cycles 
meet each other.  Twice every second you'll get a cycle with 
almost no flicker, and just as often you'll get a flicker which 
is about twice as intense.  I haven't yet met the person whose 
eyes were so sharp that they could actually see this happening, 
but it is a very real phenomenon.
     Your eyes may not notice flicker unless the environment is 
right, just as your ears won't notice the 60-cycle hum of a 
poorly-grounded radio until there's a break in the music.  
Imagine this hum with two loud ticks every second and you have an 
idea of the interference effect of working at a computer screen 
under fluorescent lighting.
     I have observed that monitor flicker tends to be more 
noticeable under fluorescent lighting than under incandescents or 
halogens.  Incandescent bulbs use a white-hot filament of metal 
to create light, Fluorescent tubes create light by applying an 
electrical charge to gases in the tube.  Halogen lamps use both a 
filament and gas.  The solid metal filaments in incandescent and 
halogen lamps don't heat and cool rapidly enough between pulses 
of current to cause a visible flicker, so they are considered to 
be flicker-free light sources.
Not a guaranteed  fix


Changing from fluorescent to incandescent or halogen lighting in 
a sensitive computing environment won't eliminate screen flicker, 
but it can significantly reduce the degree to which it is 
noticed.  Halogen bulbs tend to be much costlier than 
incandescent bulbs, but they also tend to last longer and produce 
more light from less energy.
    
Screen sway
Dazzling...but not in a friendly way


Screen sway is visible as a mild to severe, rapidly vibrating 
screen image.  It is generally found with inexpensive monitors or 
older monitors which have had a lot of use, and it's caused by 
electromagnetic interference.  It's usually an intermittent 
problem but in severe cases it can be constant.
     The interference itself usually emanates from a strong, 
poorly shielded power supply.  The culprit could be the power 
supply transformer in the computer; the transformer in the 
monitor; the motor in a forklift, refrigerator or air 
conditioner; even the microwave oven in the lunchroom.
The only reliable method of tracing the problem
The only reliable way to trace the source of the interference is 
through trial and error, and the only reason to trace it is if 
several monitors are swaying at the same time on the same site.  
If only one monitor is experiencing sway, exchanging it with 
another monitor from a different office or site may cause the 
sway to disappear and prevent the need to purchase another 
monitor, at least temporarily.  But if a geographical cure 
doesn't solve the problem, the monitor should be replaced 
immediately.
     Screen sway is a serious optical stressor.  Our eyes will 
try to dart back and forth with the screen, whether we want them 
to or not, in an effort to keep up with the movement of the 
image.  The only relief from the irritation this produces comes 
with exhaustion, which is preceded by severe eyestrain, 
dizziness, and possibly double vision, headache and general 
irritability.
Not a problem to be taken lightly


I've seen far too many users take screen sway lightly.  Momentary 
sway which only occurs for a second or two when a nearby motor 
switches on might disrupt a user's concentration for a moment, 
but constant sway is torture.  I left one jobsite literally in 
tears at the end of each day after working on a monitor which 
swayed about a quarter of an inch for fifteen minutes out of the 
hour.
  

  
Flyback wear: a very serious problem
A potential problem, especially with older monitors


This may be the most dangerous problem on any monitor...and 
perhaps the most common.  Over time, circuits in any CRT device 
(monitor or TV) wear out.  If nothing else dies first, the 
flyback will eventually collapse the image to a tiny dot or line 
in the center of the screen as the monitor says a final farewell.
     Don't hesitate for one second before servicing (or, ideally, 
replacing) a monitor on which the display is shrinking 
vertically, horizontally or all around.  Worn flybacks may be the 
number one cause of increased radio emissions from monitors, and 
these emissions can include large amounts of cancer-causing 
x-rays.  According to a technician I met in Ontario, intermittent 
flyback failures on a worn TV or monitor are accompanied by large 
momentary bursts of x-rays.  Some sensitive people even claim to 
be able to feel these bursts physically or experience bizarre 
visual effects.  Even brief exposure to x-radiation can damage 
living tissue.
Emission levels rise with age
     A flyback doesn't need to be worn out to emit higher than 
allowable levels of radiation.  There are standards governing the 
level of x-radiation and radio emissions allowable from a new 
monitor.  But like carbon monoxide emissions on cars, these 
levels change with use...almost always for the worse.  This same 
technician also told me that almost every TV that came into his 
repair shop was over the legal line for emissions, and flyback 
maladjustment was the prime cause.  Yearly adjustments help (if 
you can find a technician willing or able to do them) but they're 
no cure.
     Fortunately, newer monitors use resistors which are designed 
to burn out before the flyback can actually get worn enough to 
produce this kind of problem, but when in doubt, err on the side 
of safety.
The best cure is prevention


The best solution at this time is to prevent emissions in the 
first place by purchasing a monitor conforming to stringent 
Swedish government standards for allowable emissions.  These 
monitors leave the factory less toxic than standard monitors, and 
will probably continue to produce lower than normal emissions 
even when they're out of tune.  TVM literally built their market 
presence in North America by marketing the first full line of 
affordable low-radiation monitors.  Today almost every 
manufacturer produces low-rad versions of all of its most popular 
units.
     It's easy to dismiss this as no big deal.  After all, you 
don't see a lot of people demanding a change in standards or 
mandatory annual monitor tests.  Then again, you don't see a lot 
of mechanics wearing face masks when they blow the dust out of 
your brakes either, even though that dust is probably asbestos.  
And you don't usually see mandatory auto emissions testing until 
the area considering the legislation has smog thick enough to 
serve on a plate.
  
  
Screen type, size and dot pitch


Monitor screens come in three major types: dot-pitched, 
continuous phosphor and liquid-crystal display (LCD).  There are 
others, such as plasma and rear-projection, but these are the 
three most common.
How monitor screens are laid out
     Color monitor screens are usually made up of tens of 
thousands of circular dots.  Hybrid dot screens such as the Sony 
Trinitron, Toshiba Blackstripe and RCA tubes use rectangular 
screen divisions rather than dots.  If you look closely at these 
screens, you'll see that they're made up of interwoven rectangles 
rather than dots.  These tubes are much more pleasing to the eye 
and provide a more accurate picture than dot screens, but they're 
also considerably more expensive.  Sony is by far the most common 
and respected maker of hybrid color monitors, and their prices 
reflect that.  A hybrid monitor is worth the investment for 
anyone who uses their computer for extended periods, especially 
for graphics-intensive work such as desktop publishing.
     Dot screens come in various sizes, usually ranging from 14 
diagonal to 19.  (The latter are much costlier than 14 and 15 
screens, and high-end graphics monitors of up to 30 diagonal can 
be purchased for prices starting in the thousands of dollars.)
     The dots themselves come in various sizes, and generally 
speaking the smaller the dot size the better.  When VGA monitors 
burst onto the scene a few years back, the dots were usually 
..39mm to .42mm in diameter.  Today's standard is .28mm, and you 
shouldn't settle for anything less...or, rather, more.  The 
smaller the dot, the sharper the picture...sort of.
Adjusting sharpness


You see, the way the monitor is adjusted plays a role in picture 
sharpness.  Many monitors come with a sharpness dial on the back.  
Ideally this control should be set for maximum sharpness but a 
lot of people don't like this effect, particularly when running 
Windows in VGA mode.  The screen fonts and graphics appear much 
more jagged and the dot pattern on the screen surface is much 
more visible on a screen with sharpness at optimum.  This is an 
esthetic problem, and softening the screen to give it a more 
pleasing effect actually degrades picture quality.  A sharp 
picture is also better for your eyes, and better for your psyche 
as well.  Regardless of how irritating crisp pixels might look, 
our bodies always prefer a sharp, real image to one which has 
been artificially altered for esthetics.
     I discovered this for myself a year or so ago when shopping 
for a monitor.  I found that I had a distinct preference for LCD 
laptop screens, where each graphical software pixel is 
represented by its own clearly-defined liquid crystal and no dots 
distort the image in any way.  Regrettably, I have not been able 
to find an LCD screen for my home computer.
     In the end, it's up to you whether you prefer the soft 
illusion of sharpness created by a slightly fuzzy image or the 
sharp reality of jaggy pixel images on a crisp display.
     The size of your monitor depends on your pocketbook.  If 
space is not a problem, my usual recommendation is to purchase 
the largest screen you can afford.  A 17" monitor with a dot 
pitch (dot size) of .28mm will have more dots per inch than a 14 
monitor with the same dot pitch, resulting in less total 
distortion of the screen image.
If it's too intense, move back!


If working too close to a large screen overwhelms you, move it 
back on the desk...if you can.  Some workspaces require that the 
monitor be fairly close to your face, and in these situations I 
usually advise a smaller screen or even a laptop.  Select monitor 
size according to the level of comfort you feel when reading the 
smallest text you're likely to need.  DOS text is generally 
always the same size.  Windows icon descriptions and cue card 
text are about the smallest text you'll see in Windows.
     Continuous-phosphor displays are found on monochrome 
monitors such as older amber or green-screen TTL's and on and VGA 
monochrome (black-and-white) units.  The screen is fully coated 
with phosphor, not broken up into tiny circular or rectangular 
target frames.  Framing isn't needed for the dots because there's 
only one electron gun.  There's no problem with two or more color 
guns not aligning quite right and distorting the image.
     For this reason, I and many others find a properly-adjusted 
monochrome screen much less stressful to work with for long 
periods of time.  The old Macs with their small black-and-white 
screens, and Ataris with Goldstar monochrome monitors (these were 
also made for PC's and are highly recommended if you can find 
one) are legendary for comfort in marathon computing sessions.
Monochrome: less stressful than color


Monochrome screens also emit less radiation than color screens.  
Unfortunately, one very popular brand (Datatrain, made by Roland) 
has a history of being difficult to keep properly adjusted.  The 
controls for screen size and sharpness are located inside the 
Datatrain VGA-mono's case, making it difficult for the user to 
adjust.  Over time the image can get very fuzzy.  It may also dim 
as the picture tube ages, and the image can even change its 
proportion or position on the screen.  If you've noticed these 
problems on a Datatrain VGA monochrome, have it adjusted by 
someone who knows how to do the job.  There are 600-volt currents 
inside monitor cases and the adjustments must be made with the 
power turned on.  This is not a job for any but the most 
confident and sure-handed do-it-yourselfer, and even then thick 
rubber gloves are recommended.  Adjusting and reassembling the 
monitor shouldn't take more than half an hour for a competent 
technician.
     If you look closely at a monochrome screen, you'll see what 
appear to be lines of phosphor which extend from left to right 
across the screen with tiny black gaps between them.  These lines 
are created by the electron gun, not carved into the screen 
itself.  If you watch a technician fiddle with the monitor you'll 
see that the size and position of these lines can be changed.  
Dots on a color screen do not change in size or location.
Flat-screen tubes offer a more natural appearance


Flat-screen tubes are the latest rage in monitor ergonomics.  The 
idea behind flat screens is to create a more natural focus on the 
screen itself.  On a normal convex screen, the edges of the 
screen are often noticeably farther from your eye than the 
center.  Ideally, the screen should be concave, so that all parts 
of the screen are the same distance from your eye.  The flat 
screen is really a compromise.  Flat-screen tubes are great for 
people who work primarily with graphics applications or for those 
who have a distinct taste for an accurate picture, and they can 
help reduce reflective glare because there's less chance of glare 
angle matching the reflection angle of a light source.  But from 
a health or stress standpoint, they have no real value.  The 
human eye doesn't necessarily prefer to have everything it sees a 
fixed length from the eye.  In fact, it prefers the positive 
stress of change and a variety of focal lengths.
LCD screens: the crispest (and dimmest) of all


Finally, there's the LCD screen found on all but the costliest 
laptops and notebooks.  Most newer models are lit from behind the 
actual screen, leading you to believe they're fundamentally 
different in concept from an LCD screen.  They aren't.  If you 
look at a laptop screen from a sharp angle, you'll see the 
contents of the screen shift to what looks like a photographic 
negative image.  This is the same effect you get from an LCD 
watch when you look at its display from the right angle.
     The only light emitted from an LCD display comes from the 
illumination which occurs behind the screen, and it's provided by 
a low-power lamp, not a cathode ray tube.  The screen itself is 
usually divided into small squares, or liquid crystals, which are 
supposed to match the size of a single screen pixel in VGA 
graphics mode.  Because these screens don't rely on light to 
define the image, they don't suffer from sharpness problems 
associated with tube monitors.  The relatively low intensity of 
the back lighting seldom results in excessive contrast which can 
lead to eyestrain.  In fact, the reverse is true.  They can be 
horribly difficult to see properly in any environment receiving a 
lot of direct sunlight.


LCD screens aren't nearly as pretty as CRT screens (passive color 
displays in particular tend to look washed out), and they are 
very fragile.  But they do offer the greatest sharpness of any 
display type and the lowest overall level of user stress.  What 
they lack is the ability to use higher graphics resolutions than 
standard VGA...and a reasonable price.  Until recently, color LCD 
screens prohibitively expensive for most users.
  
  
Screen resolution
A dot is a dot but a pixel can grow on you


There are many different levels of screen resolution, but there 
is one fairly standard type which has been in use since 
practically the birth of the personal computer: 640x480.  This 
means that there are 640 divisions from left to right and 480 
from top to bottom, regardless of how many dots the screen may 
have.  Primitive graphics schemes such as Hercules and CGA had 
high-resolution modes with approximately the same number of 
pixels (the difference was that they allowed fewer color choices 
for individual pixels), and even non-graphical monochrome screens 
display text at about this degree of resolution.
     There is a great deal of confusion over the value of the 
newer SVGA and XGA resolutions, which allow for more than twice 
as many pixels on the screen.  What most first-time buyers don't 
realize is that when Windows is run on a SVGA monitor in 
high-resolution mode, it doesn't result in a sharper picture.  
Instead, every graphical object (except screen fonts if the Large 
Fonts option is selected) appears smaller, including text fonts, 
icons, and window borders.  This is because Windows maps icons 
and window graphics to be a specific number of pixels high and 
wide, regardless of how many pixels can be shown on the screen.
What higher resolution won't do


Higher resolutions won't take your jaggy screen fonts and add 
extra pixels to make them smoother, not unless you select a 
larger font size, which you can't always do.  You can't select 
larger icons either; they all have a standard number of pixels.
     So rather than having a sharper picture with clearer fonts 
and graphics, as you'd probably expect from super-VGA, you get 
more screen to work with and everything reduced in size.  This 
size reduction prompts a lot of people to opt for large, 
expensive 17 SVGA screens just to get the same degree of object 
visibility they had on an old 12" to 14" VGA.
     A VGA monitor with a .28mm dot pitch will look pretty much 
the same as the same-sized .28mm SVGA monitor when both monitors 
are running in VGA graphics mode.  So why bother with SVGA at 
all?  What SVGA will give you is better graphic quality for 
desktop publishing, artwork and photo retouching, compatibility 
with the latest games, and better control and color for graphics 
and multimedia software.
Virtually all new monitors and adapter cards support SVGA


If you use your computer mainly for word processing, 
spreadsheets, databases and other non-graphical applications, you 
probably don't need SVGA.  It's hard to find color monitors today 
which don't support SVGA, but you could save yourself an upgrade 
someone might have told you that you needed.
     In general, there's no reason to change Windows from its 
standard VGA mode unless you want improved graphics resolution 
for animation, real-time video, actual graphic images, or a 
larger screen area to work with.  If you're using an older EGA, 
CGA or Hercules monochrome monitor, you should be able to get 
something close to VGA's level of detail in all these modes, but 
there will be fewer color options available.
     Higher screen resolution and more colors will also reduce 
the speed of your graphics display.  An extra half-second wait 
for screens to redraw on an old, low-memory VGA card might seem 
like a nit-picky complaint, but when that wait occurs a hundred 
times a day or more, as it does with serious Windows use, it 
becomes a frustration that can usually be dealt with quite 
inexpensively by upgrading only your video card.  Consult with a 
reputable hardware dealer before making any decisions, though.
  
  
Screen brightness
Not such a brilliant idea


I've often wondered why some people crank up the brightness on 
their screens even when they have no visual problems.  When I got 
my answer, I started to worry about people who prefer a bright 
screen.
     Although it's by no means an accurate diagnostic indicator, 
it appears to me that those who prefer a bright screen tend to be 
overstressed, Type A personalities who prefer being bombarded 
with sensation over a relaxed work environment.  Long-term 
exposure to a too-bright screen is harmful to the eyes and 
nervous system, and just as addictive as any other artificial 
sensory stimulant.  These people may have weekend withdrawal 
symptoms and not even know it.  People with this preference may 
not be suited to computer work at all; they may be more suited to 
positions which offer them greater social stimulation, which is a 
more natural stressor.
Brightness can boost emissions


It should go without saying that the brighter the screen, the 
more energy the monitor consumes and the higher the emission 
levels.  I recommend the maximum level of brightness on any 
computer being used for long periods be no brighter than a piece 
of printed paper held next to the monitor.  The optimum level of 
brightness for picture-tube screens is as dim as is comfortable 
while still being easily readable.
     If you want a dramatic picture of how screen brightness 
relates to emissions levels, go to a store which sells the TVM 
line of monitors and ask to see one of these side-by-side with a 
same-size monitor which does not have TVM's low-radiation 
technology.  (I suggest TVM since all of their consumer-level 
monitors employ low-radiation technology.) The TVM will look 
almost washed out compared to the other monitor, which may lead 
you to believe that it's an inferior picture.  But if you view a 
nature scene on both screens, you may discover that the TVM's 
image looks a little less artificial than the image on a 
non-low-radiation monitor.
All monitors are missing elements of the spectrum


Neither is as pleasing as the real thing, because part of the 
brilliance of nature comes from ultraviolet and infrared light 
which are part of natural sunlight.  We don't actually see these 
wavelengths, but if you flash a picture on a screen using the 
visible spectrum, from violet down to red; then flash the same 
picture with ultraviolet and infrared added in; many people claim 
to see a distinct difference in quality.  Boosting brightness on 
the monitor may be a reflex action we take in order to get a more 
natural picture, but if so it's a futile response, because this 
degree of natural effect is something you can't get on a normal 
monitor.
     Unless you're working with photographic images, you don't 
need a high-contrast, ultra-brilliant picture to do effective 
work.  In fact, if you spend most of your day doing data entry, 
you may find your performance enhanced by using the dullest, 
dimmest picture you can stand.  High contrast contributes to 
eyestrain just as surely as an overly-brilliant screen.
  


  
Gauging your level of monitor stress
A simple test


There's a good test to see how stressed your eyes and nervous 
system are.  If you're relaxed and open, you'll be able to see 
the individual dots on the screen as you work.  On monochrome 
monitors you'll see continuous lines.  On laptop screens you'll 
see tiny squares.  The higher your stress level, the less able 
you are to see them.  Some people never see them, and some never 
lose sight of them.  How often you see them is less important 
than whether you find yourself less able to see them than normal 
in certain situations.
     For example, if you only see them at the end of the day, 
your job may actually be a stress-reducer for you, although as 
I'll explain below the opposite might also be true.  If they 
disappear as the day progresses, you have a pretty good indicator 
that your job is taxing you in some way.  If they come and go at 
various times of the day, you're fairly normal.
Nothing relaxes a body like exhaustion


There's a flip side to this which is worth noting.  If you're 
extremely overstressed, you'll also be able to see these lines 
and dots more clearly.  It's a trauma effect, the same sort of 
heightened level of awareness that occurs with soldiers in 
battle.  It can often be difficult to tell whether heightened 
sensory awareness is a sign of relaxation or heightened stress, 
so be wary of making generalizations in regard to testing 
employees in this fashion.  Even heightened productivity can be a 
sign of overstress.
  
When I first started working on this report, monitor-mounted copy 
holders were more common than wrist rests.  They're a good 
idea...but maybe not for you.  These copy holders are designed to 
reduce refocussing stress by placing the document to be 
transcribed or referred to on the same visual plane as the 
monitor screen, and the same distance from the eyes.  They work 
wonderfully well for touch-typists; they're lousy for anyone who 
still has to look at the keyboard.  If you're a hunt-and-peck 
typist.  place your documents on the desk between the keyboard 
and the monitor.  If necessary, move the monitor back to make 
room for the document.  You'll probably find this a lot more 
productive than using a copy holder.

  
Color your (virtual) world
Pleasing the eyes doesn't always please the body


Light text on a black screen is generally best for the eyes, but 
just about everyone is moving toward graphical, full-color video 
displays such as Windows, OS/2, Macintosh Finder and UNIX 
X-windows.  The more light which emanates from the screen, the 
more radiation accompanies it.
     Most, if not all, of these graphical operating systems 
include utilities for altering the colors of virtually every 
aspect of the workplace environment.  It's usually worth doing, 
because the default screen color configuration usually includes a 
lot of white background.  White uses more energy on a color 
screen than any other color, so changing this color will almost 
always reduce total emissions and lessen optical stress.
     There are several schools of thought regarding which colors 
you should use to replace white.  It would be simple enough to 
turn the screen image into a photographic negative, so that the 
screen was mostly black, but unfortunately it isn't always 
possible, and when it is, it doesn't always work.  You may wish 
to experiment with various color schemes to see which provides 
you with the most pleasing look, the lowest total light output, 
and the least distortion of what you see on the screen.
Alternative color schemes


Microsoft Windows, the most popular of the graphical operating 
systems, comes packed with a wide range of alternate color 
schemes.  Some are novelty items, some are useful for laptop 
computers, and all of them are highly configurable, often down to 
the last screen detail.
     Choice of screen colors will have a subtle but definite 
psychological impact.  Experiment with screen colors to see which 
suits you best at certain times of the day.  You may wish to 
start the day with a mauve background to ease you out of your 
sleepiness, switch to green at mid-morning, and then to a reddish 
hue in the afternoon as a way of boosting your energy.
The Luscher Color Test


If you'd like to learn more about the psychological implications 
of color, pick up a copy of The Luscher Color Test by Dr. Max 
Luscher at your local bookstore.  There are software versions of 
the color test available, but the quality of those I've seen was 
so poor that I do not recommend them in place of the book.
  
  
Computer-related emissions
No straws here
     "Everything causes cancer.  What's one more thing?"


I don't think I'll ever forget hearing my father say those words 
as he butted his cigarette and hacked off another piece of pork 
chop.  As long as I can't forget, I can't forgive either.  This 
was the man I relied upon to teach me how to survive and prosper 
in the great Canadian jungle.
     I don't believe in the straw that broke the camel's back, 
not when it comes to direct threats to the immune system.  
Anything that stresses natural immunity is a threat to your 
physical health.  And make no mistake, whether it comes from 
sound waves emitted by tires on the highway or from microwaves 
emitted by the satellite dish on the roof of an office tower, 
intrusive radiation of any type is a negative stressor.
     Before I go any further on this issue, it's important to 
distinguish between positive and negative stressors.  Our bodies 
have evolved to manage, thrive, and even feed upon certain types 
of radiation.  Our skin turns the sun's rays into vitamin D so we 
don't have to saddle our livers with the job as mammals with more 
body hair do.  Sound waves resonate through our bodies and 
provide essential stimulation for a wide range of functions.  
Many believe we depend upon the electromagnetic radiation of the 
earth for a lot of our mental functions and instinctive 
reactions.  The planet itself even emits a radiation which 
appears to resonate with our cells.
We may eventually thrive on "harmful" radiation


Humans as a species are infinitely capable of adaptation.  Over 
the generations, we'll no doubt develop systems for coping, and 
eventually for thriving, on the energy we currently release in 
the form of radio waves, microwaves, and even emissions from 
nuclear waste.  But at the present time our bodies aren't built 
to handle these things.  So while the devices which create these 
emissions provide benefits in some areas of our lives, the 
emissions they produce create hazards in other areas.  Denying 
these hazards is like saying there's a free lunch.
     Since we've come too far and grown too dependent upon 
technology to shut it all down and go back to the land en masse, 
the only responsible course of action left to us is to protect 
ourselves against technology's hazards as they become known to 
us.  Turning a blind eye, or waiting for tangible proof of risk 
in the form of illness in ourselves or a loved one, only passes 
the responsibility for damage control and cleanup on to future 
generations.
     What I'm trying to say is that computer-related radiation is 
a problem here and now, and there are things we can do to 
minimize the damage.
Still in the dark ages


At this time our culture is still very much in the dark about 
these issues.  Little has been said publicly about 
computer-related emissions, and the studies that the medical 
establishment insists upon before accepting any new idea as truth 
are so scarce that consciousness-raising on this issue currently 
requires a lot of salesmanship.
     If you work in a large office, you might want to gather as 
much evidence as you can from
different sources about EM, ELF, microwave and other forms of 
radiation, and lobby your employer to have the workplace swept 
for hot spots every six months or so by someone with the proper 
instruments.  The more you can do to pinpoint and reduce sources 
of excessive radiation, the more long-term health benefits you'll 
reap.  Healthy employees contribute to higher employee 
satisfaction ratings, which is almost always good business.
    
Scalar-wave ELF emissions
The radiation no one talks about


After years of working with relatively low-powered computers, I 
was a little bit hesitant to move up to the new 386/486 series.  
It wasn't the power of the chip that frightened me.  It was what 
the chip did with its power.  Central processing unit (CPU) chips 
eat up a lot of power for something a half-inch square and 
thinner than a fingernail.  Some of that juice is wasted as 
radiant heat...most 386 chips need their own cooling fans just to 
dissipate this heat.  But CPU chips also radiate in a different 
way, a way most people aren't even aware exists.
     Our planet emits something called a scalar-wave 
electromagnetic pulse 6.14 times per second.  This ELF vibration 
permeates everything around us, and it is actually part of us.  
Experiments in blocking this radiation resulted in immune system 
changes in both plants and animals.  Adding the frequency back 
into the environment, even artificially, reversed the changes.  
Altering the frequency resulted in still more changes.
Unnatural scalars: a fact of modern life


You've probably guessed by now that CPU chips emit scalar-wave 
ELF emissions which are not in sync with the earth's natural 
emissions.  So do computer power supplies.  And transformers in 
video monitors.  And a host of other electrical and electronic 
devices.  In fact, the slightest signal changes in the 60-cycle 
electrical wave in your household electrical circuits will result 
in abnormal scalar-wave emissions.
     All chips from the old Z-80's to today's Pentium and PowerPC 
chips produce a similar effect, albeit to differing degrees.  In 
general, the more powerful the chip the stronger the radiation, 
and chips have been doubling in power every two years for the 
past twelve.  To make matters worse, the cards and accessories 
included with today's PC's often use their own CPU chips, adding 
to the overall effect.
     The result is one more invisible bird flipped at Mother 
Nature, and one more invisible stressor which most people won't 
take seriously until their kids or their neighbors start getting 
sick.  The bad news is that everyone who uses a computer is 
exposed to this electromagnetic radiation.  The good news is that 
technology exists today for negating its harmful effects, and 
this technology is a one-shot purchase.
Protection does not come cheap


The equalizer is that this is not a mass-market product yet, so 
volume hasn't brought costs down to reasonable levels.  Right 
now, effective ELF shields cost between $80 and $250 per person, 
and larger units for a room or office cost upwards of $500.  In a 
few years they'll probably come down to the $20-$100 range and 
become standard computer accessories as demand drives up 
manufacturing volume and pays down the research and development 
costs.
     I don't know for certain, but I believe one of these devices 
played a part in saving my life three years ago.  At that time I 
suffered the greatest crisis of my adult life.  Although I had an 
appetite, I was literally unable to eat more than small amounts 
of food for nearly three years without severe physical 
discomfort.
A testimonial of sorts


I carried an ELF shielding device in the form of a wristwatch 
with me for two straight years, and the only physical illness I 
suffered during that period was viral pneumonia which was 
actually brought on by other stressors.  In the two years 
previous, I had suffered a viral or bacterial infection at least 
once a season.
     I damaged this device and could not afford to replace it for 
about a year, and in that time my stress level skyrocketed again.  
Within a week after replacing the device, I sank into a 
depression which was, in retrospect.  Much more welcome than the 
wired state I had been in for the previous year.  It was not at 
all the effect I expected, which leads me to believe that the 
device did not merely have a placebo effect.
     I can't prove that the ELF shielding device contained in a 
wristwatch which I wore 24 hours a day was responsible in any way 
for preserving my health, but I strongly believe it was.  I 
believe it so strongly that I recommend these devices to my 
clients, high cost be damned.
  
  
Medical foundation for ELF shielding
Some interesting test results


In tests conducted by Dr. Glen Rein at Stanford University 
Medical School, cell cultures exposed to abnormal ELF emissions 
showed hormonal activity that looked very much like the hormonal 
changes that go along with clinical depression.  Depression is 
usually accompanied by reduced immune function.  He also found 
that the use of a Teslar ELF shielding device (one of the first 
such devices created for the mass-market, and the device I used) 
in proximity to the test cultures reduced the absorption of 
depression-associated hormones by approximately 20 percent.  It 
also boosted immune production by a whopping 76 to 134 percent.  
I believe these figures are too significant to be ignored, in 
spite of Dr. Rein's disfavor among his fellows in the medical 
community.  Another frequently-quoted researcher is Anthony 
Scott-Morley.
     Another frequently-quoted researcher is Anthony 
Scott-Morley.  He discovered that ELF shielding devices seemed to 
be a great help to people who demonstrate a measurable stress 
response to computer terminal emissions.  While his methods are 
not orthodox in medical terms, the same measuring devices he used 
in his research are now in use by consultants across North 
America to diagnose sick buildings.
World Health Organization concerns


Regardless of how you may feel about the researchers or the 
research, the fact remains that the World Health Organization 
clearly stated its concerns regarding ELF emissions more than a 
decade ago.  Scalar-wave devices such as the Teslar watch, Cocoon 
and Pulsor, among others, have been shown to filter and 
counteract unnatural ELF emissions.  They aren't cheap, but if 
they only provide a fraction of the benefits suggested by the 
results of Rein and Scott-Morley, they still represent one of the 
best employee health investments I have ever seen.
     In Canada, Essentia Communications is my preferred source 
for the Teslar, Cocoon, Pulsor and other ELF shielding devices, 
and the only reliable supplier I know of.  They can be reached by 
phone at (613)238-4437, by fax at (613) or by mail at 100 Bronson 
Ave., Suite 1001, Ottawa, ON K1R-6G8.  Request information on 
specific products or types of products.  They also have a 
selection of books and reports relating to office and computer 
ergonomics and environmental emissions.
  
  
Reduced emissions and energy savings
Power down for added safety and savings


One way to reduce ELF emissions is to turn off computers -- as 
well as any other electronic devices -- when not in use.  Turning 
your system on and off throughout the day will reduce the life of 
your hard disk and power supply, and probably other 
heat-sensitive components as well.  Who cares?  In five years, 
hard disks and motherboards lose 80 percent of their value.  Even 
if they still have half their useful life left, the energy 
savings alone will make up for most of the remaining 20 percent, 
and the reduced emissions are almost pure gravy.  My 
three-year-old TEAC hard disk has been turned on and off no fewer 
than ten times a day since I bought it, and it's still running 
smoothly with absolutely no errors.
Green PC


The new Green PC standard is a way of building reduced power 
consumption, and thus reduced emissions, directly into the 
hardware.  Monitors conforming to this standard will turn off the 
video signal and cut power consumption after a short period of 
computer inactivity.  Green computer circuit boards will also 
automatically reduce their power consumption after a period of 
inactivity.  Both are excellent long-term investments thanks to 
the power savings, and the reduced emissions are, once again, 
gravy.  Unfortunately, the green PC is not universal, so you'll 
have to ask for these features when you buy.
     While we're on the subject, worn fluorescent tubes also emit 
x-rays.  The grey spots where the fluorescent coating has been 
worn away are particularly hot.  Some lighting experts recommend 
wrapping two inches of reusable lead tape around the glass at the 
ends of all fluorescent tubes, and I agree with them.  (Any 
fluorescent tube which has begun to flicker should be replaced 
immediately.) Ballasts and, according to my sources, unballasted 
tubes also emit electromagnetic radiation not found with 
incandescent or halogen lighting.
"Natural" fluorescents: not always the best choice


Proper natural, emission-free lighting is so expensive that I 
have decided to forego all fluorescent lighting in my home and 
workplace.  Essentia, mentioned in the above section, is the only 
supplier I know which provides pre-shielded, spectrum-balanced 
fluorescent tubes, and the cost of these tubes to refit a large 
office could run over $1,500 at current prices due to the low 
production runs on these tubes and current recouping of RD costs.  
If you're interested, contact Essentia about the OTT-lite and 
related fixtures.
     These OTT-lite tubes are also recommended to assist people 
with SADS (seasonal affective disorder syndrome) who find their 
functioning significantly impaired in winter months when direct 
sunlight is less available.
  
  
Noise pollution
No fans wanted by this writer


As a writer, one of my biggest complaints about modern PCs is fan 
noise.  I can't stand unnecessary noise in any creative 
situation.  In most offices, computer fans are just one of many 
sources of background noise, and eliminating this noise often 
won't create a noticeably quieter environment.  At home or in 
older, non-air-conditioned offices, computer fans can be an 
obnoxious intrusion.
     What most users don't know is that the average PC in indoor 
use in Canada doesn't need a fan nearly as badly as many 
technicians would have you believe.  I decided almost two years 
ago to disconnect the fan to my cheap Taiwanese power supply.  If 
it only lasted six months instead of a decade, it was worth it 
for the peace and quiet.  It's still humming along trouble-free 
more than two years later, although I left a little extra space 
at the back of the case for ventilation, not a job the average 
user should attempt on their own.
Giving the components room to breathe


The key is not just to disconnect the fan, but to remove as much 
of the case surrounding the power supply as possible so that 
heat-sensitive components are still protected by airflow from 
vents in the case.  Sometimes you'll need to remove the fan 
completely to allow for direct airflow through the case's fan 
vents.
     The new 486 and Pentium chips are often affixed with a fan 
designed to cool the main processing chip, even though the 
manufacturer claims they're not needed.  If cooling concerns you, 
you can also get a device called a heat sink (a ribbed metal 
device which drains away heat from the chip) to do the job 
noise-free, and at about the cost of a chip fan.  Every new 486 
or Pentium chip will last longer if affixed with some sort of 
cooling device, but they're not necessary.  A good half of the 
486 machines I've serviced have neither chip fans nor heat sinks, 
and few have displayed the flaky behavior which is supposed to 
accompany the lack of a cooling device.
There's a risk involved, but for many it's worth it


Once again, if the hardware only lasts five years instead of the 
expected ten, who cares as long as a little more peace and quiet 
makes you happier or more productive?
     If a technician tries to convince you that the fans are 
absolutely essential, ask them why they usually don't put chip 
fans in notebook computers, and can't put them in subnotebooks.  
Even my own tech, someone whose expertise I respect highly, was 
surprised that I've had so few problems.
  

More than you ever wanted to know about
Floppy disks and formatting


Formatting is one of the most arcane and bizarre computer 
concepts the average new user is likely to encounter.  Why should 
you need to write to a disk before you can write to it?  You 
don't need to do that with cassettes or videotapes, so why a 
floppy disk or hard disk?  Here's some mythbusting and 
mind-opening information on how it happens and why.
    The purpose of formatting
    The four common IBM-compatible disk formats
    A little history
    About special formats
    Telling them apart without a program
    About disk stretching
    A very stern warning
  
The purpose of formatting
Starting from what you know


Whether you know it or not, you were using formatted electronic 
media long before you ever laid hands on a computer.  The fact is 
that cassettes and videotapes use their own type of formatting.  
Tape decks have tape guides which hold the tape firmly in place 
so the head never has to move.  The narrow area of the tape with 
the magnetic signal never wavers more than a few thousandths of 
an inch from its appropriate position no matter how fast the tape 
rolls.  And the magnetic strength and area on the tape where 
information is stored has to follow a precise set of rules.  All 
of these factors combine to define the format of an audio tape.
     Old-style LP records had a format as well.  The groove had 
to be a specific width and depth, and there could only be so many 
revolutions per disk.  These and other factors combined to create 
its format.
     Now imagine the problems associated with disk drives.  Think 
of a floppy disk as a vinyl record album with no groove.  The 
needle will slide all over the surface if there's no groove to 
guide it.  An unformatted floppy disk is just like a record with 
no groove, and the drive heads are like tone arms with no 
needles.  Formatting is a way of creating a magnetic groove for 
the drive head to ride in.
Data farming


Let's try a different analogy.  Think of a disk as a big, round, 
open cornfield.  If there are no rows, no furrows and no seeds, 
you can wander around planting at random for days.  You'll plant 
too many seeds in some areas and too few in others.  Your field 
will look very spotty at harvest time, and it won't be an 
efficient harvest.
     Formatting a disk is like making between 40 and 80 circular 
furrows for the corn seed.  It's like drawing a plan on the disk 
for the most efficient harvest.  Think of writing data onto the 
disk as as seeding the cornfield.  When you read that data back 
into the computer, that's your harvest.
     A disk drive is like a robot harvester.  A robot can't think 
on its feet.  It has to know where and how to plant for you, and 
where and how to pick the corn.  When you format a disk, you 
create furrows for the robot farmer to follow.  You create marks 
that tell this robot where to place every single chunk of data, 
up to one and a half million of them on a single floppy disk, and 
where to find the data later.
  
  
The four common IBM-compatible disk formats
Hard disks do their own thing; floppies can't


Most users never need to know more about hard disk formatting 
than the fact that hard disks are formatted.  Hard disks 
generally come preformatted from the dealer, and anyone needing a 
special hard disk format can probably acquire the expertise on 
their own.  From this point on, we'll discuss floppy disk 
formatting exclusively.
     There are four common types of disk format used with 
IBM-compatibles.  Each type corresponds to a different type of 
disk.  The four formats are known as 360k double density, 720k 
double density, AT format high density, and HD format high or 
quad density.  There are actually many more types of formats, but 
these are by far the most common.  (Actually, there is really 
only one truly standard format at this time: 1.44Mb HD.
     Here's a chart which describes the format types and the 
types of disks which use them:
Disk Types And The Formats They Use


    Disk sizeApprox. storage sizeUsual labelOther names

    3-1/2    720,000 bytes     MF2DD      DSDD

    3-1/2    1,440,000 bytes   MF2HD      DSHD, HD

    5-1/4    360,000 bytes     M2D        DSDD

    5-1/4    1,200,000 bytes   M2HD       AT, DSHDM2D: A 5-1/4 
double density 2-sided floppy disk holds 360K.  (Strange as it 
might seem, not all floppies are claimed to have two 
sides...another logic-defying truth about computers.
M2HD: The AT-style disk is a 5-1/4 high density 2-sided floppy 
that holds 1.2M of data.
MF-2SD: A single-sided 3-1/2 double density disk isn't even 
designed to be formatted double-sided (IBM-compatibles can't 
normally even read single-sided disks), but they will usually 
format properly and hold data, although they're not likely to 
last as long as the...
MF-2DD: ...double-sided, double density 3-1/2 diskette.  The 
boxes say they'll hold up to a megabyte of data, but even the 
Ataris and Macs with special formatting software can't get them 
to reliably hold more than 840k of data.
MF-2HD: A double-sided, quad density (high-density) 3-1/2 disk 
has a capacity of 1.44M.  Once again, some claim they'll hold up 
to 2M of data, but that's really pushing it.  The highest 
reliable format is approximately 1.7M.  Microsoft uses disks of 
this extended capacity for distributing their new Windows 95 
software.
  
  
A little history
For those who care...


The original IBM-style microcomputer diskette was a 5-1/4 disk 
that held 180,000 bytes of data, also known as a 180 kilobyte 
disk or, most commonly, a 180K.  (Experienced users usually refer 
to disks by the number of K (kilobytes) or M (megabytes or megs) 
they hold, as in a 720K or a 1.2 megger.
     At the time these first became popular, floppy disks used by 
most microcomputers were a full eight inches in diameter!  You'll 
still see these dinosaurs in pawnshops, Salvation Army stores and 
the hands of students working on some of these outdated systems 
in computing courses.  180K was a ton of space in days when it 
was rare to find programs larger than 20,000 bytes.  Not any 
more, not now that Windows, Mac and OS/2 have "cracked the DOS 
memory barrier".  Some newer Windows and OS/2 programs are 
several million bytes in size.  Imagine installing Windows 95, 
which comes on 25 1.44Mb floppies, from about 200 180K floppies 
instead.  It's ludicrous.  The technology had to keep up.
     So the next standard was the same size 5-1/4 disk which held 
360k.  They were a major improvement on the 180k disk because 
these new disks were able to store data on both sides of the 
disk.  The older disks weren't nearly as well formulated, and if 
you attempted to write on both sides of many of these disks, the 
magnetic signal would drift through the plastic film and 
contaminate data on the other side of the disk.
Expanding by factors of two


The next development held twice as much data (computer 
innovations always seem to be of the twice-as-much variety, which 
makes sense when you consider that all computing is about 0's and 
1's, or multiples of twos).  It was a 3-1/2 disk in a sturdy 
plastic housing, fully protected from dirty fingers thanks to a 
nifty sliding aluminum door.  These disks were not just smaller 
than the 360K, but denser, using higher-quality film and magnetic 
particles to permit the greater storage capacity in the smaller 
space.
     They were originally available in both single-sided and 
double-sided formats, and the double-sided disks held 720k.  
These were, and still are, called micro floppy disks.  The Apple 
Macintosh, Commodore Amiga and Atari ST computers all used the 
smaller, denser style of disk, as did the new portable PC's and 
some higher-end IBM clones.
AT format: a dead issue


Next came the AT disk, a 5-1/4 disk which held 1.2 million bytes, 
nearly four times as much as the 360k disks used on most 
IBM-compatible PC's.  These were nicknamed AT disks because they 
first gained popularity when IBM introduced its faster AT-series 
computers in the mid- to late-1980s.  They have also caused 
enormous confusion for thousands of novice PC users, because 
unless these disks are clearly labelled high density or AT 
diskettes, there is absolutely no way for the average user to 
tell them from a normal 360K diskette without attempting a 
format.  You can even format a 360k disk to a full 1.2Mb under 
DOS, because neither the hardware nor the software can tell the 
two apart.  (This type of formatting is very unstable, however, 
and is definitely not recommended.)
     The older 5-1/4-size disk was kept for this new format 
because that was the IBM disk capacity standard of the day.  
Newer AT-class disk drives could read and format the common 360K 
disks as well as the newer high density 1.2Mb, but it had its 
problems.  Users soon discovered that 360K disks
formatted or written to by earlier AT-style floppy drives were 
unreadable by most normal 360K drives.  This problem all but 
disappeared with drives made after about 1992, but then 360K 
drives have pretty much vanished too.  The problem was sorted out 
too late for most users.
     The magnetic media is manufactured in a different way on the 
1.2Mb disk, which accounts for its greater storage capacity on 
the same size disk.  You might say the AT disk is to the 360k 
what metal-tape cassettes are to low-noise cassettes.
Today's standard


Last but not least is the current standard, the 1.44 megabyte, or 
1.44Mb disk in the sturdy 3-1/2 case.  This disk is almost 
exactly twice the capacity of the old-style 3-1/2 720k disk, 
thanks once again to improvements in the quality of the film and 
magnetic particles.  
     The engineers learned from their mistakes when they designed 
the 1.44Mb disk.  Just as 360K disks won't format reliably to 
1.2Mb, 720K disks will eventually suffer serious problems if you 
try to format them to 1.44Mb.  A high-quality floppy drive using 
top-quality blank disks might be able to pull it off, but you'll 
still have to cheat the engineers.
     DOS won't let you try this "stretched format" unless you 
drill an extra hole in the case of the 720K disk.  1.44Mb disks 
have a second window, which the disk drive checks before it will 
allow a 1.44M format to be attempted.  Using a drill for this job 
is not recommended because it creates plastic shavings which can 
damage the surface of the disk if they get inside the plastic 
shell.  Some manufacturers created special "clean punches" for 
turning 720K disks into 1.44M disks, and computer nuts still 
argue about the safety of this practice.  More on this in one of 
the later topics.
     Each disk format has its own code.  It's an industry 
standard used by all reputable manufacturers, and you'll see the 
code written on the box, on the label, or right on the disk 
itself in some cases.  C-60 tells you a cassette is a 60-minute 
compact cassette, and an MF2DD tells you it's a micro-floppy, 2 
sides and double density.
The next standard is already five years old


Not many people know it, but 2.88Mb 3-1/2 disks have been around 
for almost five years without really taking off.  They are still 
so uncommon that the prices of these disks make them unsuitable 
for the average PC user, and in a 1993 version of this article we 
predicted that by this writing (late 1995) almost every new 
computer would be equipped with a 2.88Mb floppy drive.  They 
should be, but for reasons unknown the idea never caught on 
enough to allow the high production volumes of drives and disks 
that would have made this format a viable consumer option.
     It's possible that the next floppy disk standard won't be a 
floppy disk at all, but a magneto-optical disk.  Iomega 
manufactures a very popular device called a Zip drive that holds 
100Mb of data on a 4" disk no heavier than a floppy, and it's 
entirely possible that this could be the next storage standard.
     (Truth to tell, it's usually software publishers who set the 
standards for floppy disk popularity.  People only started buying 
1.44Mb drives when publishers began releasing many of their 
larger applications in this format.  Since most larger apps are 
released today on CD, no major publisher has felt the need to 
promote or endorse a new floppy format.)
  

  
About special formats
Getting more than you bargained for


There are a few free and shareware programs which claim to be 
able to format 360k diskettes to 720k, and add a minimum of 10 
percent more space to any diskette.  They'll do the job all 
right, and we've used special extended formats for years...on our 
Atari computer.  There is a price to be paid if you try to use 
special formats on an IBM-compatible.  The problem is that some 
newer IBM-compatible motherboards won't read these disks no 
matter what you do with them.  Your extended-format diskettes may 
become useless if you upgrade from a 286 with Phoenix BIOS to a 
486-DX%80x86 with AMI BIOS.
     Two years ago we advised not to use extended format 
diskettes unless absolutely necessary.  They work, and they save 
time and money, but in the long run new BIOS revisions could 
cause your computer to crash with spectacular results when you 
loaded the program designed to allow special formats.
     At the time, there was only one viable widely-available 
program for creating and reading these extended-format disks: a 
free German program called FDFORMAT.EXE.
     Fortunately this is no longer true.  There are now several 
programs designed for safely and efficiently creating, copying 
and reading these extended formats both in DOS and Windows 
3.1/3.11 and for Windows 95.  Among these programs are HDCOPY, 
WinImage and CopyQM, all widely available from the usual archive 
sites (SimTel, SimTel Windows and CICA/Winsite).
Dealing with DMF format disks


At this time the most common extended-format disk in circulation 
is DMF, or Disk Media Format, used by Microsoft for distributing 
their new Windows 95 software.  We were unable to find a single 
program which accurately formats a DMF-formatted disk, but more 
and more programs are able to copy these disks all the time.  You 
can back up your Windows 95 software on floppy disk...you just 
need a program designed to handle the high disk capacity.  Our 
personal favorite is HDCOPY.EXE.  This is a free program 
available from many locations on the Internet, and you'll find a 
link to programs designed for this purpose either on the Software 
Resources Page or on our Web site.
One final note about special formats'


We recommend using only new, unformatted floppies for copying and 
creating extended-format diskettes.  The reason for this has to 
do with the way the magnetic signature is laid down on the disk.  
When a disk is reformatted at a new capacity, the old magnetic 
signature is not completely erased.  This means that the disk 
formatted with the new capacity is likely to be somewhat less 
stable and the integrity of the data will decay at a faster rate.  
How much faster we don't know, but it only seems logical that 
using unformatted floppies for copying and creating extended 
format diskettes is likely to produce a disk with a longer life.
    
Telling them apart without a program
Two disk sizes


         
         This is a 3-1/2" floppy disk.
                             This one is a 5-1/4" floppy.

They're 
both called floppy disks because the actual disk material inside 
the covering is made of of a flexible material.  Hard disks are 
so named because the circular disk inside the disk's airtight 
case is made of rigid metal.
Two disk capacities
     You can tell high density 3-1/2" disks from old-style double 
density disks in two ways.  High density disks always have HD 
embossed or painted on the disk shell beside the metal door in 
the lower left-hand corner and have two tiny holes at the top 
instead of just one.  If the disk doesn't say HD, it's almost 
certainly a double density disk.
     Unfortunately, there is no way to tell by looking at a 5-1/4 
disk whether it is a double density or high density disk.  It 
helps to mark a small HD or AT on the disk before you format it 
so you'll be able to tell later which density it is.
What type of disk should you use?


It's particularly important to select a regular disk type when 
you're just starting out in computing.  Over the years, every 
enthusiast builds up a collection of anywhere from 100 to over 
1,000 disks, and using a regular disk type for all your backups 
and personal disks makes economic and organizational sense.  
Which disk type makes the most sense to use?  Unquestionably, 
1.44Mb 3-1/2 floppies.  They're practically the only game in town 
any more.  If you don't have a drive that handles this disk type, 
get one.
     That doesn't mean your old 720K floppies are useless.  They 
can be used for storage, and if you have Windows 95 you have the 
advantage of an operating system that writes data to these 
floppies at speeds far faster than good old DOS 6.x and Windows 
3.x.  Just keep in mind
     Your 5-1/4" disks?  Copy the data to new 1.44M diskettes if 
the data is important and keep both the copies and the originals.  
If the data is irreplaceable and uncopiable (perhaps the disks 
are copy protected), store the disks in zipper bags to prevent 
oxygen damage to prevent decay and wrap the bag in aluminum foil 
to protect against accidental magnetism causing any wear to the 
disk.  Speakers, microwave ovens and even kitchen blenders have 
been known to affect the flux density of the disk.  (Flux density 
is the strength of the magnetic signal that carries the data.)  
Just don't use them for long-term storage unless absolutely 
necessary, since they tend to be the most prone to wear and 
damage, and 5-1/4" drives are becoming scarcer all the time.


And just in case you were thinking of turning your old 720K disks 
into 1.44M disks, read the next topic.  It just might change your 
mind.
  
  
About disk stretching
There ain't no such thing as a free lunch


What's the real scoop on turning 720K disks into 1.44Mb disks?  
Well, the following is a text taken from a widely-circulated BBS 
file on the topic.  It's a good warning on how not to pinch a few 
pennies.  Fortunately this is one fad which appears to be going 
out of fashion, but there are still a few supporters of the idea 
floating around.
     "This is in response to suggestions I've heard on how to 
  format 720K diskettes to 1.44 megabytes.  I've seen various 
  articles on how to modify disk drives to allow this and I have 
  seen ads for a device that punches holes in the diskette case 
  to fool the drive sensor.  All these tricks are a bad idea.  
  You risk losing your data if you format a 720K diskette to 1.44 
  megabytes.
     "The reason is the nature of the diskette media.  Data is 
  written with a stronger magnetic field on the 1.44 meg 
  diskettes.  Using such a strong field on a 720K diskette makes 
  the bits on the disk too strong for the medium, and they will 
  gradually migrate out of position as they are attracted to and 
  repelled from each other by their magnetic fields.
     "The 720K diskette is designed to be formatted and written 
  to with a magnetic field strength of 300 oersteds.  The 1.44 
  meg diskettes are high coercivity media; they require a 
  magnetic field strength of 600 oersteds, twice that of the 
  lower density diskettes.  The high capacity diskettes are less 
  sensitive to magnetic recording (that's why they require a 
  stronger magnetic field).  This allows the bits to be recorded 
  at twice the density, or twice as close together.  Because the 
  medium is less sensitive, the bits will not interfere with each 
  other.  On a more sensitive medium, such as that used for 720K 
  diskettes, the bits must be farther apart to eliminate 
  interference with each other.  That's why you cannot get as 
  much information on the disk."
Another warning


The book Upgrading and Repairing PCs, by Scott Mueller (Carmel, 
Indiana: Que Corporation, 1988), contains this warning:
     "You should not actually store any important data on this 
  incorrectly formatted disk because the data is recorded at 
  twice the recommended strength and density.  Over time, the 
  adjacent magnetic domains on the disk begin to affect each 
  other, causing migration of the domains due to the magnetic 
  attraction and repulsion effects ....  Over time, the disk 
  seems to erase itself.  The process may take a day, a week, a 
  month or more, but the result is pretty much inevitable." (page 
  316)
     The author goes on to say that incorrectly formatting the 
disk also ruins the disk because you cannot then reformat it to a 
lower density.  When formatting to a lower density the drive 
writes with a weaker current, which cannot overwrite the 
high-volume information now on the disk.  The only solution is to 
use a bulk eraser.
     We say don't waste your time.  The disk will seem to format 
correctly, but you may be sorry later when your data fades into 
the magnetic sunset.
  
  
A very stern warning


It is not uncommon for new DOS users to accidentally format their 
hard disks and lose every bit of data they contained.  You can 
recover the data from a reformatted hard disk if you've taken the 
proper precautions with Norton Utilities, DOS 6.0 or a similar 
package with hard disk protection software, but if you didn't, it 
could take someone with a lot of technical skill at $25 an hour 
minimum to get your files back for you.
     So until you become skilled with the formatting procedure, 
be very careful not to type a C or a D at any time during the 
format procedure.  If you really want to be sure you don't 
accidentally format your hard disk, learn how to format floppies 
from Windows using the File Manager's Disk menu, which contains 
procedures for formatting and copying floppies.  Windows 95 users 
will find their formatter by double-clicking the My Computer icon 
and then right-clicking on the icon for their floppy drive or 
drives.
  

Part 1: Service and support


As an IBM-compatible owner, there are some cold and often 
unpleasant facts you must face.  Access to the widest range of 
products and services comes at a price: a lack of true 
standardization everywhere except for the operating system, and 
unfortunately Windows is not always kind to less-than-expert 
users.  Owning a PC today is a lot like owning a car, and just as 
it pays to know a good mechanic, good computer support is just as 
important.  Here's a guide to finding -- and keeping -- that 
support.
    Introduction
    A consumer's guide to after-sale support
    When and who to call for help: a reference card for service 
     and support
    Learning to be a teacher: a guide for would-be tutors
    Midwifing your small or home business into the digital age
  
A consumer's guide to after-sale support


This section is designed to give you an overview of some of the 
services available, their costs, and some of the ground rules for 
finding and keeping good help.
    What's out there
    Let the buyer beware
    The crunch: what it costs
    Where to find the right people
    What you can and can't expect from your support professional
  
When and who to call for help:
a reference card for service and support


When should you call in professional help, and who should you 
call?  You'll have to balance factors such as your sense of 
adventure, the risk of making the problem worse by attempting to 
fix it yourself, and the limits imposed by your budget against 
the actual urgency of the problem.  There are no hard and fast 
rules, but the general guidelines offered here should help you to 
make a more informed decision.


                            The 'local hero'
                            Bulletin boards, internet and online 
                             services
                            Vendor product support lines
                            Hardware and software vendors
                            Private tutors and on-site 
                             troubleshooters
                            Classroom training
                            Computer clubs and special interest 
                          groups
  
Computer support: an introduction
Shamed into stupidity


Just as every driver ought to know how to change a tire, fill the 
tank and add a quart of oil, every computer owner needs a few 
basic skills.  Among them are knowledge of disk, file and 
directory structure; the difference between needed and unneeded 
files; how to recover from a hard disk crash; and how to install, 
configure and remove new hardware and software.
     Sure.  And perhaps you wouldn't mind carrying the rest of 
the world on your back as well.
     Personal computing in the 1990's is as much an emotional 
minefield as a grand adventure.  All too often the industry sets 
us up to feel helpless or foolish, and either infers or tells us 
outright that we need skills which aren't necessary to make 
productive use of the machines.  Either that or they promise 
support and ease of use that simply doesn't match real world use.
     It's little wonder that when things go wrong -- as they 
inevitably will -- users often feel like babes in the woods.  
Even if you know where to turn, you might still be unsure whether 
you should even ask for help.  Who can you trust?  How do you 
tell good service from bad?  Is it even fair to ask for help with 
trivial problems?  What is it okay for you not to know?
The days of D-I-Y computing are gone


A decade ago, a certain level of programming expertise was 
considered essential to keeping your PC up and running.  Not 
today.  Operating systems have gotten much easier to learn and 
use.  But in the process they've grown so complex that even 
professional troubleshooters frequently call in outside help.
     This help usually costs money.  Most users will eventually 
have to give up on the idea that once they own a PC, the only 
maintenance they'll ever need will be hardware repairs.  You 
can't go it alone any more.
     It's been decades since our culture has faced a collective 
learning challenge similar to what we face with the personal 
computer.  PC's have a lot in common with cars in terms of their 
complexity, the changes they're making to our culture, and the 
increase in opportunities they provide to us as owners.
Old logic and new problems


But that's old news.  Problems start where we try to apply the 
same logic to using our PC that we apply to owning a car.  The 
context is similar, and it seems to make sense, but we don't have 
the long cultural history with personal computers that we have 
with the automobile.  We don't have injury prevention laws, 
service standards or generations of learning to fall back on.  
The truth today is that computer buyers are usually far less 
equipped for first-time ownership than new drivers.
     For example, the software used by the car -- our streets and 
highways -- doesn't need manuals aside from a reference card for 
highway lines and road signs.  We're taught practically from 
birth that we learn to drive from qualified instructors, leave 
auto maintenance to qualified servicepeople, and let trained 
public employees take care of road maintenance.
     We have our whole childhood to watch and learn from other 
drivers.  We were not taught to haul ourselves out of ditches, 
rebuild engines or fix potholes in the street.


Unfortunately, many new users believe they need to achieve a 
similar level of self-sufficiency on their computers -- and do it 
on their own -- if they don't want to appear as total idiots.  In 
the early days of the automobile, basic mechanical and road 
maintenance skills were required in some parts of the country.  
Those who didn't have them faced the same dilemmas first-time PC 
owners face today: lack of quality service, fear, misinformation 
and dissatisfaction with their new tool.
     That all changed in the 1930s and 1940s when cars became a 
cultural institution.  We'll see similar changes occur with 
computers in the next few years, but in the meantime computing 
will be a lot like car ownership was sixty years ago.
Driver training: an ongoing process


The biggest difference -- and it's an important one -- is that 
once you learn to drive, you can drive almost anything.  Until 
interfaces become truly standardized, driver training on your 
computer will be an ongoing process, not a one-shot deal.  You'll 
have to upgrade your skills with each new operating system 
upgrade or program you install.
     We may not have a Public Works Department of PC Maintenance 
to rely upon, but that doesn't mean you have to take on 
maintenance chores yourself.
     In fact, you probably shouldn't even try unless you truly 
want the skills.  In just a few years operating systems have 
grown from a handful of files totalling less than a megabyte to 
hundreds of files totalling dozens of megabytes.  The days when 
the average user could reasonably be expected to troubleshoot and 
maintain their own system have vanished, probably forever.  Like 
cars, the beasts have grown beyond user-serviceability.
     Simply put, don't expect to know everything or achieve 
complete computing self-sufficiency!  You'll be a lot happier 
with your computer, if perhaps a little poorer, when you accept 
that you need and deserve expert help in maintaining your machine 
and keeping up your skills.
The key to happiness: when in doubt, delegate!


When faced with problems that you'd rather not deal with on your 
own, give them to someone else to deal with.  And keep in mind 
that when you buy a new system, at least part of your total 
investment will have to be devoted to maintenance, training and 
troubleshooting.
  
  
Computer support: what's out there


At $25 to $50 an hour for telephone support, $30 to $75 an hour 
for shop service, and anywhere from $15 to $100 an hour plus 
possible travel charges for in-home training or on-site service, 
professional tutoring and technical support is not exactly 
dirt-cheap.  But then neither is a good mechanic.  How well --and 
how long -- do you think you could keep your car on the road 
without one?  Get used to it...computer ownership is becoming 
more like car ownership every day.
How much do you want to learn?


Trying to acquire maintenance skills on your own computer, reach 
peak efficiency with your applications software, or survive 
without occasional expert guidance is a lot like doing your own 
auto repairs.  It's risky, often costlier than expected, and 
usually too time-consuming to be practical.  Face it, you're 
going to need help.  Probably more than you think.
     There is so much to know about computers and software and 
the way they interact that no one person can keep up with more 
than a small fraction of what's out there.  Most people spread 
their auto maintenance among a brake and transmission specialist, 
a tire dealer, a general mechanic, a tune-up specialist and a 
body shop.  Computer support is moving very rapidly toward the 
same degree of specialization.
     Business users need a cable specialist, a network 
troubleshooter, a service depot, two or more operating system 
hackers (one for their programs and another for the network 
software), a pair of tutors (there's usually a personality clash 
with one employee that hampers a lone tutor's efficiency), and 
possibly a programmer on call or on account at all times.  Even 
casual home users should have the numbers of at least two 
reliable tutors or system hackers.
  
  
Let the buyer beware
A tough job made tougher


When you select a licensed mechanic, you have at least some 
assurance of competence.  Don't expect the same security with 
computer support.  The industry is young and prone to 
inexperience and immaturity.  Even the most competent 
troubleshooters occasionally make mistakes and encounter problems 
they don't understand.  Different support pro's deal with this 
problem in different ways.
     There is also a powerful mystique surrounding computers that 
infects all but the humblest professionals from time to time and 
stops them from admitting it when they're wrong, trusting their 
judgment when they're right, or calling for outside help when 
they're in over their heads.  And still others know a great deal 
about a great many things, but they fear their own knowledge and 
the possibility that they could do less than perfect service for 
their client.  What if their advice was made obsolete by a new 
product that they never heard about?  It probably was, but they 
can still get the job done.  What if there's a better solution to 
the problem they're facing?  They're probably is, but those who 
know it are likely charging twice as much per hour.
     Then again, the same things could be said about auto 
mechanics.
Have a Sharp Eye


Choose your support professionals with the same breathless 
caution and keen eye for personal integrity you'd use when 
checking out a mechanic for the family car.  Programming skill, 
certification, degrees and number of years' experience are no 
substitute for deductive logic, communications skills, the 
creativity to solve problems never seen before, and the guts to 
admit when help can't be offered.
     You'll find plenty of people who fill the first set of 
requirements, but our friends and clients report severe shortages 
of everything in the second list.
     At this time the market is wide open to technojocks with 
lousy people skills who bill themselves as tutors, and reckless 
fly-by-nighters with consultant on their business cards.  This is 
a field where anyone with a few skills and enough nerve can hang 
out a shingle and collect $50 to $100 per hour from people who 
probably won't even know if they're getting good service.
     This industry-wide epidemic of mistrust and self-doubt has 
had a profound effect on the way otherwise competent support 
pro's conduct themselves.  It's a sad commentary on the industry 
that at this moment in time, you probably shouldn't expect total 
honesty from a dealer or a support pro until you're a paying 
client.
     This lack of honesty often has less to do with integrity 
than it does with good people defending themselves against a bad 
situation.  The truth is often so demoralizing and the market so 
confusing that many consumers will accept a seductive lie over 
painful facts.
Who would you rather give your business to?


Who would you rather give your business: someone who guarantees 
that their systems are 99 percent trouble-free?  Or someone who 
tells you that regardless of what precautions they take or who 
you buy from, your brand-new system has a one in ten chance of 
needing service in the first six months?  How much more likely 
would you be to fall for the lie if you were told that the 
industry's own estimates are
closer to one in five?


The sad truth is that the latter number is probably the most 
accurate, and until they've been burned once, most people will 
choose to buy from the person who withholds the whole truth.
     This is just one of the ethical dilemmas faced by support 
pro's and vendors attempting to establish themselves in today's 
market.  The next few years will almost certainly see increased 
demand for stricter licensing, a bevy of lawsuits, and -- as 
operating systems become increasingly sophisticated -- even your 
neighborhood tutor may need (or at least want) to carry 
malpractice insurance.
Free support: often worth even less than the cost
     To illustrate this point, there seems to be an increasing 
number of vendors and consultants who offer free advice as a way 
of pulling in future business.  Much of it is useful, but we've 
heard people offer free advice to novices that involved hardware 
configuration and software hacking at depths where novice users 
can cripple their computers.


If free advice from a friend, neighbor or helpful vendor results 
in damage to your data or hardware, you usually have no recourse 
except through the courts.  On the other hand, if a paid 
professional troubleshooter can't help you, at least they'll know 
how to restore your system to normal.  No competent support pro 
will leave you worse off than you were when you called for help.
    
The crunch: what it costs


Here's an idea of what you can expect to pay for support of these 
types at various levels.  Please keep in mind that any figures 
offered here are based solely on the authors' experiences in the 
Vancouver, Canada area.  There should be little difference 
between the dollar amounts in Canada and the US, but rates may 
vary widely from one locale to the next.
    Tutors
    Classroom training
    Troubleshooters
    Contracted support
    Shop service
  


The tutoring market ranges from college students willing to teach 
operating system basics and productivity applications at beginner 
to advanced levels in their homes for as little as $10 per hour 
to on-site commercial trainers specializing in a single program 
who may charge upwards of $75 per hour.
Classroom training also varies widely, from as little as $5 per 
session for introductory lessons in DOS, Windows and 
telecommunications offered by schools, clubs and service groups 
to upwards of $40 per session for small-group training in 
specific programs.  The quality of classroom training varies as 
widely as individual tutoring.  You're less likely to find an 
incompetent instructor teaching a computing class than you are to 
run into a fly-by-night tutor, but you're more likely to get less 
learning for your time in a classroom setting, particularly if 
each student isn't provided with their own computer.
Troubleshooters usually bill their services at $40 to $150 per 
hour depending upon their level of expertise and specialization.  
You can often negotiate lower rates for long-term or contract 
service and on-account support, particularly from self-employed 
independents and newer consulting firms hungry for business.
Contracted troubleshooters and trainers hired through service 
depots, training centers and hardware vendors cost anywhere from 
30 to 100 percent more than independents.  The extra cost of 
contracted troubleshooting usually includes greater assurance 
that your problems will get solved one way or another.
On the other hand, contracted trainers don't usually come with a 
guarantee that the human interface will be user-friendly.  There 
doesn't seem to be a way of insuring the people you hire will 
have good people skills.
Shop service for your hardware problems ranges from $30 to $65 
per hour, once again depending upon the level of expertise 
required by the job and whether the service tech is independent 
or subcontracted.
  
Where to find the right people
Matching the person to the job


Although the components are highly sophisticated, computers 
themselves can be assembled by anyone who has the organizational 
skills and dexterity to put together a model railroad.  Most 
tutors and troubleshooters can perform simple jobs like 
installing CD-ROMs, additional memory, modems and new video 
cards; tracing loose connections and restoring crashed hard 
disks; and they'll often do it at a lower price than a retailer 
or service depot.
     If fast turnaround is critical to you, and your budget can't 
support using a commercial service depot, the best way to insure 
prompt hardware service is to buy your hardware from a small 
mom'n'pop or basement vendor with a good reputation for customer 
service.  Small size usually translates into greater ability to 
respond quickly to individual emergencies.
     There are many more tutors working independently than there 
are support pro's.  It doesn't necessarily make finding a good 
one any easier, but it often means you'll wind up paying a much 
lower rate than you will if you go through a training center.  
Private computer tutors with strong communications skills and the 
patience to work well with novices are still in the minority.
A company position is no guarantee of skill


Many of the best support pro's don't work for the hardware 
vendors, training centers or service depots who get the lion's 
share of the training business.  Be aware that many of the worst 
are also independents, usually because no one else will hire 
them.  If misjudging someone's competence has cost you time or 
money in the past, you may have better luck finding someone 
through a medium-sized consulting firm or training center, where 
they will have been screened for competence.
     People often complain that there aren't enough good people 
in the field to serve everyone who needs help.  The fact is that 
there are thousands of competent, compassionate and often 
brilliant techs and tutors who are barely eking out a living.  
You simply have to know where to look.  Unfortunately, the best 
fishing holes are seldom the best-known.
     University and college notice boards are often filled with 
ads from service depots, students offering tutoring, vendors and 
private consultants.  Many independents advertise in newspaper or 
magazine classifieds, and the best people for providing 
compassionate, individualized service are often the worst at 
writing good ads for themselves.
If all else fails, ask for referrals


Larger training centers and consulting firms can be located 
through the business section of daily newspapers or through 
computer publications.  Local colleges may keep phone numbers of 
tutors on file for their students, and they'll often give out 
this information to the general public.  If all else fails, ask 
friends and colleagues who they have found helpful.  If you need 
help for your business, talk to contacts with other firms in your 
field to find out who they're using and how they like the 
service.  There are so many bad reports floating around these 
days that any good report is a lead worth following up.
     Regardless of who you select, check the firm or individual 
through the Better Business Bureau.  Business users should have a 
non-disclosure agreement ready to be signed by anyone working on 
their
office systems.  It's also a good idea to ask your prospective 
support pro for client references, although some reputable 
consultants working in sensitive fields may refuse to supply 
them.
  
  
What to expect from your support professional
Don't be seduced by paper


There are at least three ways to do just about everything in a 
graphical operating environment such as Windows or Macintosh's 
System/Finder, and there are more hacks for command line 
environments such as DOS and UNIX than people have been able to 
count.  It's unlikely any one person can teach you the best way 
to do everything you want to learn.  If you're really keen on 
becoming an expert, you'll eventually need several tutors.  But 
the same is true in just about any field.
     Don't be seduced by degrees and certificates.  software and 
hardware change so rapidly that a two-year-old certificate is 
practically useless today except as a status symbol.  It's more 
important to find someone with whom you can communicate in 
comfort than someone with a mountain of knowledge.
     You'll retain more of what you learn if the atmosphere is 
casual and intimate.  One of the most common complaints about 
private tutors is that they work far too quickly and expect too 
much of their students.
The most valuable quality in a support person: adaptability


You can reasonably expect a private tutor to be able to teach you 
any program you may wish to learn...provided they have access to 
a copy of the software to train on themselves and the will to 
learn it, and most have the will.
     As long as they're far enough ahead of you to teach what 
you're ready to learn, it doesn't matter how much experience they 
have with a given program.  We know several consultants and 
tutors who have trained many people -- and trained them 
effectively -- in programs and procedures they had neither seen 
nor used until the night before the lesson.
     Most professional tutors have enough basic operating system 
knowledge to handle maintenance chores on home systems.  Their 
services are generally billed at one-half to one-third the cost 
of a full-fledged troubleshooter, making them a good first choice 
for service for PC users on a tight budget.
     You have the right to expect that the service you pay for 
translates into increased knowledge and productivity.  Far too 
many support pro's overload their clients with information and 
leave them feeling more confused and less capable than when they 
arrived.  That's not just bad service.  It's irresponsible 
teaching.
The blurred line of free support


Most tutors will provide at least some telephone support between 
lessons as a way of helping clients to cope with the information 
overload most people face at one time or another in the learning 
process.  Many consultants and troubleshooters will encourage you 
to make between-service calls when you run into trouble, but some 
charge extra for this.  Ask beforehand to make sure you have this 
kind of access to help when you need it.  It's an important 
aspect of both regular maintenance and any ongoing training 
program, and worth the cost of a retaining fee.
Don't expect anything for nothing...
     On the other hand, you can wreck a relationship with a 
talented support pro by taking
advantage of the situation.  If you're concerned that you might 
be asking for too much between-visit support, ask them how they 
feel about it.  There are no standards for this, and most support 
pro's have only their own gut feelings to go on.  Often it's not 
until they've been thoroughly used by a demanding client that 
techs and trainers start to impose limits on telephone support.
....although you might be surprised


Don't expect to call a support pro for the first time and get 
even the simplest question answered over the phone for free.  
Many will offer this sort of help, especially as a way of 
demonstrating their expertise to a prospective client, and most 
independents have done this at some point in their careers.  The 
free advice phase usually ends the moment they realize that the 
same people who expect no-charge telephone support won't return 
the favor by giving them cash business when they need real help, 
or when paying clients keep them too busy to handle an hour a day 
of pro bono work.  Expect to be billed for $20-40 even for 
fifteen minutes of general question-and-answer.  It's worth it if 
it solves your problem.
     If you need this kind of help on a regular or semi-regular 
basis, you can usually buy blocks of telephone support time 
ranging from one to ten hours, usually for a little less than the 
person's regular rate.
The "bag of tricks"


Most consultants and many tutors carry a bag of tricks with them 
which includes updates, bug fixes, handy freeware and shareware 
utilities, perhaps a few of the latest shareware games, and 
preferably (but, alas, not legally) emergency copies of the 
operating systems they work with most.  These are usually 
provided as a client courtesy or to make troubleshooting easier 
for the technician and less costly for the client.
     Some troubleshooters also carry dozens of patch programs, 
bug fixes, driver files and updates for operating systems and 
popular programs such as Word and CorelDraw, and popular hardware 
such as ATi video cards and Sound Blaster audio cards.  Most 
service-oriented retailers and service depots maintain large 
libraries of these files.
     But no one, not even the largest software repositories on 
the Internet, keeps current copies of every update and bug fix, 
so don't be surprised if you're directed to your dealer or the 
manufacturer for bug fixes and updated drivers.
     Also be aware that more and more support pro's are refusing 
to work in offices that don't have legally registered copies of 
all their software, including a registered copy of the operating 
system for every computer.
"You are a registered user, aren't you?"


In fact, unless you're using an old or dreadfully obscure piece 
of software, don't be surprised if a technician refuses to 
troubleshoot your system if you don't have the original 
installation disks.  After all, consultants aren't perfect, and 
if they make a mistake, they might have no way of reinstalling 
your most critical software.
     On the flip side of this coin, many support pro's still 
believe it's okay to set you up with pirate copies of 
applications software and utilities.  But ask yourself this: if 
they're willing to cut corners with the law, what corners will 
they cut with your precious data?
     Some consultants may refuse to work on your system until you 
update your software or acquire a bug fix, and they may charge 
for their time if you expect them to track it down for you.  This 
is not an unreasonable demand, especially since they didn't write 
the software or sell it to you, and in fact acquiring a bug fix 
program on your own may eliminate the need for service 
altogether.
     You should expect your support pro to have diagnostic 
software to uncover basic problems and, with some exceptions, the 
appropriate files for rebuilding your operating system if it has 
been trashed.  You can also expect to be charged for their time 
even if they don't have proper diagnostic software, provided that 
they have helped or offered advice in other areas.
A guarantee of service...not results


Few consultants or tutors guarantee results.  It's fair to insist 
that any consultant who can't help you refer you to someone who 
can if they expect to be paid for their service.
     During the service call, you may be surprised to see your 
support pro use your telephone to call a vendor's product support 
line for help.  Don't tear up their cheque!  You're paying as 
much for their ability to ask the right questions of the right 
people as you are for what they actually know.  A capable 
consultant will know how to pump a support person for information 
in seconds that might take you half an hour to acquire.
     Many consultants will refuse to give estimates for 
troubleshooting no matter how well you describe a problem over 
the phone.  This is because almost everyone's system is 
different, and they have no way of knowing what's in store for 
them until they actually see your system.  It's not uncommon for 
fixes which normally take ten minutes to take ten times longer on 
systems with strange configurations or hardware anomalies.
Expect the first visit to be costly...and worth it


It's even more common for them to fix one problem only to 
discover several others which the client didn't even know 
existed.  Unless you specifically state that you only want 
certain problems fixed, you can usually expect your first visit 
from a support pro to last several hours.  An ethical support pro 
will not want to leave you in a vulnerable position, and 
vulnerabilities tend to accumulate over time on any heavily-used 
system.
     Get a second (and preferably a third) opinion if you suspect 
that you're being talked into service you don't need, but get 
them quickly in case your system really is an accident waiting to 
happen.
     Speaking of second opinions, be aware that it's rare to hear 
the same answer to a technical question from two different 
support pro's.  In many cases they'll both be right.  Many common 
problems have more than one solution.  Your task may be to decide 
which of the two answers feels most comfortable or makes most 
sense to you.
Going with your own needs


You'll find the same inconsistency from person to person at every 
level, from the tools they use to the philosophies that drive 
their techniques.  Here are two examples from an experienced 
consultant:
     "I'm a firm believer in backups, and I'll even insist upon a 
  full backup before commencing work on a fidgety system I 
  believe could crash at any moment.  I make backups a priority 
  with all my clients.  But I know consultants who won't even 
  raise the issue unless the client expresses
  a concern.
     "These consultants probably have clients who have gone for 
  years without ever losing a file and others who suffer 
  catastrophic data loss every time the seasons change.  I have 
  clients who have wasted five to ten minutes a day for months, 
  even years, and never needed a single byte of the data they 
  backed up, and others who have been very glad they were 
  meticulous in their backups.
     "When it comes to training I set no achievement goals for my 
  students.  I prefer to let them tell me what they want to know.  
  Many tutors believe a certain level of proficiency is critical 
  and insist that their students acquire specific skills before 
  allowing them to choose what they want to learn.
     "Who's wrong?  Certainly not the client.  It's up to the 
  support pro to determine the level and type of need for each 
  individual client rather than set hard and fast rules about how 
  any activity should be conducted."
A job more demanding than it might seem


But the fact is that no one short of a saint or a yogi can 
provide this level of service day in and day out, and there are 
precious few of either in any field.  In order to function at 
this level most consultants would have to limit themselves to two 
hours of actual service per day, refuse to work on any day when 
they felt a little bit off their game, spend no fewer than four 
hours a day doing nothing but upgrading their skills, and boost 
their hourly troubleshooting and tutoring rates to $150 or more.
     Not many will pay that kind of money even for top-drawer 
service, so most competent career support pro's rely upon a 
system, a philosophy and set of tools and techniques which get 
them through most situations.
     Any method of providing service that relies upon systems and 
specific techniques is doomed to fail a good percentage of the 
time, but it's still the best we have.  And the results are 
usually far better than no service at all.
  
  
The 'local hero'


The least expensive -- and all too often the riskiest - course of 
action is to call in a friend, neighbor or relative who knows 
computers.  These local heroes tend to be called upon for a lot 
of free advice, so exercise courtesy and good judgment.
     It's a good idea to offer some sort of compensation if you 
need more than a few minutes of their time.  Let them know that 
you won't mind being referred to a professional for things that 
can't be easily solved over the phone.
Call a friend or neighbor who 'knows computers':
   when you've lost a file or can't run a program that ran fine 
   yesterday.
     Remember that you're dealing with a talented amateur, so 
don't expect more than a fifty percent success rate.  Very often 
these kinds of problems require expert troubleshooting.
   when you want a few ideas on good entertainment or leisure 
   software.
     We choose our friends based on mutual interests, and friends 
are much better advisors on leisure software which will be suited 
to you than a salesperson or consultant.  They are seldom good 
people to ask about productivity software.
   when you want to learn how to use a bulletin board or a new 
   game.
     These are fairly basic skills which can be taught in a few 
minutes.  Don't expect them to help you learn WordPerfect or 
teach you operating system maintenance; these are jobs for 
professional tutors or third-party manuals.
   when a game has you stumped.
     Bulletin boards are often a better source of game hints.  If 
hint files aren't available for download, try leaving your 
question in a gamer's echo or general chat area if you don't mind 
waiting a few days for a reply.  Services with online chat, or 
Internet Relay Chat -- if you can access it -- can give you 
real-time access to the answers you need, and live connections 
with people who don't know you or care about you in the bargain.  
Think of game hints over the net as an element of the game 
itself...part of the fun will be finding out whether the help is 
actually helpful!
    
Bulletin boards, Internet and online services
All-purpose support that might be cheap and effective


If your problem seems fairly basic and you don't mind waiting a 
few days for a solution, you might be tempted to post a cry for 
help on the technical or help echo of a local BBS (bulletin board 
system).  Be aware, though, that the boards are not always 
well-policed for accurate information, and this sort of advice 
could get you into more trouble than you had to begin with, 
particularly if you're not experienced enough to know bad advice 
when you see it.
     Help echoes on BBS' and the local nets can be havens for 
know-it-alls who have just enough technical knowledge to be 
downright dangerous.  Moderated USENET newsgroups tend to be much 
more disciplined and better policed for accuracy.  Even 
technicians and retailers have been known to post bad advice on 
public echoes, and if you suffer damage as a result of this 
advice you have virtually no recourse.
     Don't overlook BBS' and online services as support tools in 
other areas, though.  One of the best preventive maintenance 
practices you can adopt is insuring that you keep on top of the 
latest updates and bug fixes for your software and hardware.
Online support in the corporate world


Companies with more than one computer can save themselves 
headaches and money on service calls by having an employee do a 
regular monthly online check for updates and patches for the 
operating systems, device drivers and applications software used 
on all office systems.  It's a fairly easy job now that most 
major publishers have Web sites, and increasing numbers of 
manufacturers and publishers use BBS'' and online services to 
distribute bug fixes and program updates to their customers.
     Among them are Creative Labs and Gravis (sound card drivers 
and software); WordPerfect and Lotus (printer and video drivers); 
ATi, Trident, Cirrus and Paradise (video drivers); Logitech 
(mouse and other device drivers); Hewlett Packard and NEC 
(printer drivers); Microsoft, Apple and IBM (updates and bug 
fixes for operating systems and applications); Apogee, Sierra and 
Microprose (bug fixes for games and applications).
BBS operators: computing's "backyard mechanics"


BBS' can be just as useful for their owners as they are for the 
advice of users or the files they offer.  Amateur bulletin board 
operators tend to be among the most knowledgeable users you'll 
ever meet.  Most of them don't want the responsibility of being 
paid professional troubleshooters, but if you can find one who 
will accept your business, it's a gift on par with finding a 
first-rate backyard auto mechanic.
  
  
Vendor product support lines


In many cases you paid for this service when you bought the 
software or hardware, but as prices continue to fall on 
productivity applications more and more vendors are moving toward 
a pay-for-play system.  You may be limited as to the number of 
calls you can make or amount of support you can receive without 
paying.
     Regardless of how customer support is set up, expect to wait 
on hold for anywhere from several minutes to an hour or more if 
you want to talk to a live operator.  Several hours is not 
unheard-of.  This can be excruciating if you don't have a speaker 
phone and something to occupy your time while you wait, and 
doubly painful if you discover that the support person can't help 
you.
     Be prepared for the worst when you pick up the phone.  In my 
experience, you'll get satisfaction only about two tines in 
three.  If you need better service than this, many service depots 
and independent troubleshooters provide on-account telephone 
support for a wide range of situations.
     Never call a product support for game hints, help with 
software you borrowed from a friend, for public domain software, 
freeware, or for shareware you haven't yet paid for unless the 
documentation specifically states that you may do so.
Call vendor support lines:
   when a specific piece of software or hardware is giving you 
   problems and there is no obvious solution in the manual.
   when your problem has your local hero, your dealer, tutor 
   and/or troubleshooter stumped.
   when repairs, adjustments and software troubleshooting haven't 
   helped.
   when your best hunch tells you that the problem is related to 
   their product and you need help right now.
  
  
Hardware and software vendors


Expect to either wait for an answer or be required to take your 
system to the shop when you use dealer service.  You may get a 
few freebies, particularly if you've been a regular customer, but 
don't take them for granted!
Call your dealer or vendor:
   when you have problems with the hardware or software which 
   came with a system you purchased from them, and the system is 
   still covered under their warranty.
     Your dealer may still refer you to the manufacturer's or 
publisher's product support line for further help.  They may also 
refuse to help you for free if you have added hardware or changed 
software since buying from them.  You can't hold them responsible 
for problems they didn't cause with products they didn't sell.
   when you've just bought a CD-ROM, modem, motherboard or other 
   component and can't get it to work.
     If you're not already familiar with the hardware, pay to 
have your dealer install and set it up.  This also goes for video 
accelerators, new monitors and even printers, mice and joysticks 
if you're not comfortable with installing new software.  It goes 
double for additional hard disks, tape backup systems, memory 
upgrades and audiovisual interfaces.
  
  
Private tutors and troubleshooters
Call a tutor or troubleshooter:
   for help in learning how to create and manage files and 
   backups.
     It takes more time to teach these skills than you should 
reasonably expect from a friend or neighbor.
   when you want your custom menus changed or updated.
     Your local hero might consent to do this for you, but 
customized menus are an optional accessory, like automatic 
transmissions.  Don't expect to get them for nothing.  
Programmers will charge thousands to create custom menus for 
corporate systems; PC's are a lot simpler but it's still dull 
work.
   when the manual makes no sense to you.
     All too often software and hardware manuals seem to be 
written by a committee of bureaucrats.  A tutor with compassion 
can bridge the communication gap between you and your computer in 
ways no manual can.
   when you purchase a first family computer.
     Find a tutor patient enough to deal with the whole family at 
once and gather everyone around the computer while they show you 
its stuff.  One of the nicest features of whole-family training 
is that no one needs to take it too seriously or work too hard at 
it.  Almost without exception, if one member of the family has 
forgotten a particular command, another will have remembered the 
needed information.  Family training seems to work that way if 
everyone is interested.
   when you need your hard disk pruned.
     Everyone accumulates useless data over the years.  Trimming 
this excess can extend the useful life of a shrinking hard disk, 
and anything you can do to postpone an upgrade will save you 
money.  Don't attempt this job on your own unless you've made a 
full backup of your hard disk and you're prepared to do at least 
one complete restoration.  First-timers almost always scrub a few 
essential files by accident.  Windows programs are particularly 
intrusive and difficult to remove without the help of uninstall 
software or a qualified expert.  (By the way, removing icons from 
Program Manager does not remove the software from your system.  
You have to manually erase the files.)
   when you need your system cleaned and tuned for efficiency.
     Tutors and consultants accumulate large collections of 
performance and comfort tips from colleagues and clients, nuggets 
they'll gladly share with a paying client.  Any competent support 
pro can leave the average system functioning more efficiently 
than they found it.  Physical cleaning isn't a major concern with 
today's PC's.  Most systems will only need cleaning, tune-up and 
file pruning once every year or two.
   when you need advice on productivity applications.
     A wrong choice in this area will cost you lost time, money, 
and perhaps even a promotion or your job.  Be very wary of advice 
from anyone who is not familiar with your field or with current 
trends in business software.  Even the advice of colleagues in 
your own industry should be taken with a handful of salt unless 
you're sure that they thoroughly investigated their options 
before offering an opinion.
   when you don't know which hardware or software is causing a 
   problem.
     Most problems are software-related, even when they look like 
hardware errors.  Vendors tend to
be less qualified to fix software problems than troubleshooters 
and professional tutors.
   when you find two or more programs exhibiting the same erratic 
   or unwanted behavior and the problem is not happening with a 
   brand-new system.
     If this sort of problem crops up on a new system, refer to 
your dealer for warranty service.
   when you've purchased a new system or done a major upgrade and 
   want things set up for maximum efficiency and ease of use.
     This sort of work is best performed by a qualified tutor or 
consultant.  It won't be long until we have support pro's who 
specialize in nothing but optimizations.  It's okay to watch them 
work and have them explain their modifications as long as you 
don't mind paying for the extra time this usually takes.  Ask to 
have them record what they've done in a text file so that anyone 
working on your system in the future will have a record of what 
was done in the past.
   when you want to learn how to navigate the Internet.
     You can pick up the basics in no time if you've already done 
some BBSing, but making effective use of the net's intricacies 
and available resources takes time, patience, and probably some 
expert guidance on software, sites and etiquette.  The resource 
guides alone are literally hundreds of printed pages in length, 
and not even our First Train for the Internet can truly see you 
as a unique individual and focus specifically on what you want.  
It can take you a long way, but there's nothing like your own 
private guide for really getting to know the sights.
  
  
Classroom training
Sign up for classroom training:
   if the social experience is worth at least as much to you as 
   the training you'll receive.
     Adult students tend to retain very little of their classroom 
training in comparison to in-home tutoring.  This is frequently a 
poor choice for advancing your computing skills.
   if a job you want requires certification.
     Even then, you'll probably score better on tests by sleeping 
through classes, learning hands-on at home with a good 
third-party manual, and getting a few advanced tips before the 
exam from a private tutor.
   if you can't find two good books on the software or procedures 
   you want to learn.
     Why two books?  Because the second will usually offer useful 
explanations for aspects and procedures covered poorly by the 
first.  Why books over a human trainer?  Because hands-on 
training on your own system with a good third-party manual is 
usually more effective, more efficient, and a lot cheaper than 
classroom training.
   if you learn better as an anonymous observer than through 
   personal attention.
     Some people seem to have difficulty responding to one-on-one 
instruction but thrive in a classroom setting.  If this sounds 
like you, by all means opt for classroom training over private 
tutoring.  It's your time and money, and it's up to you to get 
the most from it.
  
  
Computer clubs and special interest groups


SIGs and computer clubs are private organizations and not 
consumer resources, although increasing numbers of them offer 
fee-based services to the general public.  If you want the 
benefits, expect to pay or them with your time, knowledge, or 
donations of money or supplies.  It's through member efforts that 
these organizations survive.
Join a computer club or special-interest group:
   when you can't find a consultant or tutor who can match your 
   level of expertise.
     Once you've achieved a high degree of proficiency in a 
particular application, tutoring on advanced subjects may be 
difficult or impossible to find.  At this level, special-interest 
groups (SIGs), either on BBS' or through computer clubs are your 
best hope for finding a talent pool and knowledge level to match 
your own.
   when you can't find help elsewhere for your particular needs.
     Larger centers support a number of clubs dedicated to users 
of old or unusual hardware and operating systems, everything from 
the ancient Adam and TI99-4A home systems to FORTRAN and COBOL 
programmers to artificial intelligence and genealogy.  Check the 
back pages of your local computer magazine or newspaper for 
listings of SIGs.
  
  
Learning to be a teacher: how to bring a novice up to speed 
painlessly


This section is specifically designed for those who find 
themselves in a position to help others.  Chances are good that 
that's going to mean you.  The Internet is still doubling in 
population every few months, and by the time you have a pretty 
good idea of what you're doing, you won't just be a competent 
Internet user...you'll be a net veteran.  Unless you're reading 
this well into 1998, you can almost count on being called upon to 
help someone else.
     You owe it to yourself, those who ask for your help, and 
your fellow Internet travellers to not take this responsibility 
lightly.  Here's a guide to assisting new users which you should 
find most useful.  Just don't expect your "students" to be 
grateful...the best teaching leaves the student both competent 
and feeling like nothing is owed to the teacher.
    Learning to be a teacher
    Twelve tips for smoothing out the learning curve
  
Learning to be a teacher
Less like a handshake than a hazing


Many new users still find their first experience with a personal 
computer less like a handshake than a hazing.  but there are ways 
to make the introduction easier.
     I'm not incompetent.  I'm not perfect, either.  But that's 
no consolation to someone whose most expensive toy has just 
rejected a software transplant for reasons only a programmer 
could know.
     I don't know everything.  And I can't find a software 
solution to every problem.  Try telling that to someone who was 
sold more computer than they need by a salesperson who swore that 
the software you want is out there.
     The fulfilled promise of cheaper, more powerful computers 
has created millions of new home and small business users in a 
very short period of time.  The market for service, training and 
software support is simply too large to be filled by the 
available talent.  The field is so diverse and growing so quickly 
that no one can keep current with more than one or two small 
areas of the industry.
     This creates problems for users and service professionals 
alike.
The geek mystique


Computing is still haunted by an air of mysticism and a false 
belief that anything is possible.  Too many new users are being 
hurt by self-styled experts who can't admit the limits of their 
knowledge and professionals who have a stake in perpetuating myth 
and misinformation.  The result is frightened users who don't 
know who to trust, know-it-all novices who believe they know more 
than they do, and lost productivity and enjoyment for everyone 
concerned.
     It's the odd week when I don't meet someone who has been 
soured on computing by a trainer who didn't have the patience to 
deal with a beginner or an advertiser whose claims of reliability 
and support weren't matched by performance.  I spend a lot of 
time rebuilding people's confidence, deflating overblown egos and 
generally cleaning up after irresponsible professionals and 
know-it-all hackers.
     It's the rare computer veteran who doesn't have an arsenal 
of new-user horror stories.  Graeme Bennett of The Computer Paper 
even elevates some to the status of urban legends.  Gerry Craig, 
who for several years assisted novices in the Vancouver area 
through a users' group mentor program, used to wade through other 
people's messes on a regular basis.
     I personally know very few people who didn't survive at 
least one unpleasant episode early in their computing careers, 
but here are three which demonstrate the depth of the problem.
A few horror stories


I have a small business client who let a friend help them upgrade 
from DOS to Windows.  But they didn't just get Windows.  They got 
the much more complex Windows for Workgroups, plus Norton 
Utilities, Stacker, Microsoft Publisher, Adobe Type Manager, 
SpeedCache...virtually every IBM-compatible power tool available 
at the time, all to use WordPerfect and a straightforward DOS 
database.  These utilities were integrated so deeply into the 
system that they couldn't even format disks from DOS any more.
     I was brought in to add some shareware and remove unused 
files from the hard disk.  The
system went down with a stroke of the Enter key.  Almost 
everything was pirated, so we couldn't even reinstall the 
software.  The person who set up the system had left these people 
completely dependent upon his expertise, and he still blames me 
for messing up his friends' business.
     Last summer I encountered was a password-protected menu 
installed by the neighbor of an elderly client.  This fellow 
needed help changing the menu so he could add new software.  
Unfortunately the neighbor moved away without giving him the 
password.  My client was left with the unpleasant choice of 
learning a new menu system or living with the same six programs 
he'd had for over a year.
     This man didn't know me from Adam.  His neighbor had no 
business padlocking his computer, but why should he believe that?  
How could he know that I wasn't angling him for business?  After 
all, his neighbor had helped him for free.
The Great Equalizer or Great Humiliator?


Well-meaning hackers are one thing, but what really smolders my 
collar is that more than half of my clients who tried the idiot 
books felt even more incompetent after reading them.  And it's 
nothing short of tragic when MS-DOS' online help system still 
doesn't tell users how to run programs or install new software.  
Computers were supposed to be the Great Equalizer, not a way to 
humble less technically-minded people.
     All of us who have been around computers for more than a 
year are eventually going to be called in as consulting physician 
when one of our friends or relatives buys their first computer.  
This is the best place to start undoing the bad publicity, to 
relearn good habits we've forgotten over the years and to give a 
new user the kind of introduction we wish we could have had.
  
  
Twelve tips for
smoothing out the learning curve
How to make someone's first experience with a PC easier than it 
was for you


Here are some guidelines for de-stressing the learning process 
and making the computing experience less like having a new 
problem and more like owning a new toy.
      1. Never, ever allow someone to be dependent upon software 
they don't own.  If you're installing an unregistered operating 
system, that's software theft and you deserve every panicked 
phone call you get when the system has problems...and eventually 
every system has problems.
      2. Force every new user to learn the two-backup habit 
unless they're too poor to afford all the floppies or tapes.  One 
set should be stored off the premises so it won't be lost if 
anything happens to the computer.  Create a clean boot disk for 
use if problems occur with the hard disk, and remember that even 
the new Microsoft Backup is far too cryptic for novices.  Stick 
with simple file backups which a new user can restore from a 
batch file, and use the backup time to teach the basics of file 
and directory structure everyone eventually needs to know.
      3. Keep the boot setup simple and avoid third-party 
software.  The average user needs only about a half-dozen 
standard device drivers and TSRs to keep the system running 
smoothly.  New users will willingly sacrifice speed and a bit of 
memory for simplicity and reliability.
      4. You won't be the only person to service the system in 
its lifetime, so avoid cryptic program setups and complex menus 
which others may find tricky to change.  MS-DOS users should 
stick with simple batch menus.  Windows, OS/2 and Mac users don't 
need third-party front ends until they gain experience.
     Any special software you add to the system should be 
commented in the AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS, or a SVC_READ.TXT file 
saved to the root directory.  Make allowances for gaps in others' 
knowledge or you may leave your student vulnerable to problems 
only you can solve.
      5. Give your charge room to grow by carefully housecleaning 
unneeded system files and obsolete software.  If there's plenty 
of room on the hard disk, configure Delete Sentry or a safe 
delete system to protect against accidental data loss.
     Casual users don't usually exit Windows properly.  It's not 
uncommon to accumulate ten megabytes of .TMP files every month.  
Adding...
DEL C:\DOS\~*.TMP
....to AUTOEXEC.BAT will eliminate this clutter permanently.
      6. Start by teaching what the user wants to know, not what 
you think they need to know.  Avoid housecleaning chores until 
they can run and install new programs.  The first lessons most 
home users need are executing programs, printing and reading text 
files, modeming and processing compressed archives.
      7. Idiot-proof the system.  I often make three copies of a 
program with three different names so the user will be sure to 
remember one of them.  Renaming programs to reflect their 
functions helps most users do more with less training.
     Add the root and UTILS directories to the PATH statement so 
that any needed programs can be run without path syntax.  Install 
simple, one-touch utilities -- graphical if possible -- to take 
the place of the clunky disk and file functions built into most 
operating systems.  List all of these changes in the README file 
so they can be restored later.
      8. The goal of effective training is to teach people how to 
take care of themselves.  Once a user knows how to install 
programs and save data, teach them how to uninstall software and 
identify what can and cannot be safely erased.  Users usually 
need one-on-one help with modem configuration, downloading 
procedures, processing compressed archives, formatting documents 
and passing parameters to programs, no matter how thorough the 
manual might seem.
      9. Panic-proof a new user by creating a few harmless 
crashes and system errors.  There's seldom any reason to panic 
unless the whole system collapses, but error messages of any kind 
scare the daylights out of most novices.
      10. Take your diplomatic duties seriously.  If your student 
wants to modem, introduce them to BBS ethics and rules of 
behavior.  If they plan on trading software, it's your job to 
make them aware of the differences between shareware, freeware 
and illegal pirated software.  And shame on anyone who instills 
virus terror in a novice.  Trojans and viruses are never more 
than a rare annoyance to anyone who regularly backs up their 
data.
      11. Remember your first month at the keyboard and treat 
your charge accordingly.  Talk in terms and analogies the user 
can understand, let them set the pace, and never leave them 
hanging between lessons with half the skills needed for a task.  
In return, you have the right to expect appreciation for your 
efforts and to limit the number of panicked phone calls you'll 
accept.  Good teachers don't have all the answers; instead, they 
teach their students how to find their own answers using the 
resources available.
      12. If your charge is still confused and desperate after 
the eighteenth emergency phone call this week, remind them that 
there's always the manual.
     Ah yes, the manual...but, as they say, that's a nightmare 
tale for another dark evening.
    
So you want to computerize your business...


This first-person article, prepared in 1994 by one of our editors 
for magazine publication, still has validity even in 1996.  We 
hope this comes as help before-the-fact rather than a reminder of 
what you should have done.  This is a long article; you may wish 
to print a hard copy of this topic.
Ever have one of those months?


My client wanted a turn-key package, a complete invoicing and 
bookkeeping system designed for a small trucking business whose 
employees had never used a computer before.  No problem, I 
thought.  I quoted software, setup and training for under a 
thousand dollars.  It looked like a low-stress job I could finish 
in a week or two.
Ten hours and two dozen phone calls later, I began to sense that 
the fairly simple needs of my client were not so simple in the 
eyes of small business bookkeeping developers.  Ah, well, it was 
just a matter of plugging away until I hit the right package.
Thirty hours and twenty software packages later I began to feel 
rather panicky.  Every package was missing one or two essential 
features.  I began mumbling none too quietly about the 
mid-four-figure base costs for custom database programming and 
clients who expect a Jaguar at Chevy prices.  My client started 
asking why computers were making his life more difficult, and I 
didn't have a good answer for him.


A colleague had told me I was insane to accept the job for the 
money involved, but I knew there were dozens of excellent 
shareware programs available for business use.  I wasn't beaten 
yet.  I stepped backward, to complete DOS freight management 
package I found on a local bulletin board.  I talked the client 
into accepting the extra training time it would require as a DOS 
program as the tradeoff for complete integration at a low price.  
But when we called the developer to register the program and find 
out how to uncripple it, he actually refused to sell us the 
software!  Seems there was too much money to be made from custom 
programming to bother with piddling $150 shareware fees.  I was 
tempted to call the FTC.
After ninety hours and seventy -- yes, seventy different software 
packages -- we're talking major compromise.  My client has lost 
another two days this month to manual invoicing, and I'm out two 
weeks' work which I can't even bill.
This is not the home front


I usually work with home users, and when they ask me whether I 
have a shareware program which can do this or that, I always say 
yes before they can tell me what they need.  And I've never had 
to eat my words.  But I have learned that my experience with the 
trucking firm is fairly typical in small business consulting.  
Functional you can get for peanuts.  Useful costs more...and 
takes time.  Nobody really understands why, but it does.
Don't get me wrong.  Without question, it's easier now to 
computerize a business than it has been at any time in the past.  
You can exchange data freely between most programs at the touch 
of a button...and the buttons wll even tell you their functions.  
Training time is shorter, interfaces are slicker, everything is 
faster and the variety and quality of data you can maintain and 
generate gets better all the
time.
But we don't live in Oz...not yet.  Going digital is not as easy 
as clicking your heels together and saying "there's nothing like 
RAM" which is what a lot of the advertising seems to suggest.  
The obscurity and diversity of small business software is why 
good consultants make excellent money and work constantly.


The transition will be a lot less frustrating if you know what 
you're getting into ahead of time and remember where you're 
starting from, which in most cases is babe-in-the-woods 
territory.  A day or two of homework might sound like a lot when 
you can shop for hardware in less than an hour with nothing more 
than a newspaper and a telephone, but this effort can save you 
hundreds, perhaps even thousands of dollars in consultants' fees 
and trim untold man-hours from your transition period and 
eventual workload.
It will also maximize the efficiency of your transition and help 
you make better use of the professionals you do employ.  And 
unless you're already a proficient computer user, you will need 
professional help at some point.
Twelve tips for midwifing your
small business into the digital world1. Know what you need
 Hardware is usually easy to select and won't cause you too much 
lost time if you overbuy or underestimate your needs.  Not so 
with software.  Write down exactly what you want your business 
software to do, and in as much detail as you can.  Apply your 
imagination to your needs.  Your software must be able to grow 
with your business.
2. Brace for disappointment
 Don't expect to find a complete turn-key package available 
off-the-shelf for your specific business.  Chances are that any 
ready-made package will lack a few vital features which will 
require either additional software, manual record-keeping or the 
inability to merge your data in one or more areas.  It's a joyous 
occasion to discover a popular, inexpensive accounting or 
database package at the local disk-and-drive shop which does 
everything you need, and for the time it takes to check it out, 
it can't hurt to start with the obvious.  But be prepared for 
disappointment.  You'll probably find few local retailers up to 
meeting the specific needs of a small business.  In my 
experience, salesman are often lacking even in basic product 
information.
3. Expect some extra homework
 If what you want isn't available locally, check out the small 
back-page ads and classifieds in your field's trade publications.  
There is an astonishing range of specialty software available for 
just about every type of business, but you won't find these 
packages advertised in computer publications.  Most of them are 
only available by modem or mail order.  In many cases you can 
purchase them directly from the developer, meaning easy access to 
someone who knows the software inside-out, and usually the option 
to have a custom package created for much less than you'll 
probably pay for a package created from scratch.
Make sure the developer can provide you with a demonstration 
version of the product before offering your credit card number, 
because you may not always be able to get a refund if the 
software doesn't perform up to expectations.  It's a simple 
matter for the developer to hack a crippled demonstration version 
of a program which demonstrates all of its features without 
allowing you to make heavy use of it.  If the developer won't 
provide this kind of support, look upon this as a sample of the 
support you
can expect as a user of their product and shop elsewhere.
4. Network
 If your field isn't hyper-competitive or paranoid about 
operating procedures, find out from your competitors what they're 
using and how well it works.  It might also pay you to see if 
anyone else in your field is in the market for software.  If you 
find you need expensive specialized software or a custom 
creation, the developer might offer a reduced rate if you can 
throw two or more clients their way at one time.
5. Take your deadlines and toss them
 Don't expect to convert your business in a week unless you or 
your staff are already computer-literate.  Moving from manual to 
computerized record-keeping is like switching from a bicycle to a 
car.  The rules of the road are the same, but you'll need time 
and training to harness the increased power at your command.  The 
conversion will probably require you to learn new skills or think 
differently about your business.  You might even want to warn 
friends and loved ones when the changeover starts, because a 
degree of mental or emotional disorientation can often be 
expected.  This is no joke, but a fact of life when you attempt 
to force a lot of new learning on an old body.
This disorientation can be lessened considerably with a little 
attention to your own learning style or the styles of employees 
who will actually be using the system.  In my experience, 
entrepreneurs in particular are extreme people who generally fall 
into two categories as students, nibblers and crammers, with 
little room for middle ground.  Nibblers prefer to learn one 
simple skill at a time and master it before moving on.  Crammers 
prefer to be overwhelmed with new information.  They want to know 
everything yesterday and don't mind making mistakes or walking 
around with mud-brain until the new learning settles.  Most 
consultants and tutors are more effective with one of these 
types, and you might need to quiz the teacher to discover a 
consultant's individual strengths in this area.
Even software has features better suited to the different types 
of students.  Nibblers tend to be intellectual types who prefer 
the straight-line simplicity and rigidity of DOS or UNIX.  
Crammers tend to be more creative and sometimes they can't even 
function in a non-graphical environment.
Be prepared to experience as many unpleasant surprises as 
pleasant ones as you feel out the performance of your hardware 
and software, and if you've been sold by a hardware dealer who 
promised you that the software you need is easy to find and dirt 
simple to learn, brace yourself for a few shocks.  Hopefully you 
won't experience them, but it's more likely that you will.  
Hardware reliability improves every year, but if this is your 
first new computer keep in mind that you stand about a chance in 
six of needing service in the first month.  IBM-compatibles in 
particular are at least as recall-prone as new cars.
You can ease the transition for both yourself and your employees 
by keeping a selection of entertainment and personal use software 
on the system during the break-in period.  I find I can reduce 
client training costs by pinpointing an area of leisure interest 
and starting each employee out with a selection of free or 
shareware fun software to help them learn computing basics.  
Training takes less time because people learn faster amd with 
much less distress when they're enjoying themselves, but this 
sort of introduction also whets the appetite for more fun...and 
there's an unending supply available.
I usually expect that ten hours of playtime by a novice user will 
chop five hours' training from the client's bill.  After the 
first ten hours or so there doesn't seem to be a benefit, so you 
might choose to have the fun stuff removed once everyone has been 
trained.
6. Don't bank on computers to free up more time
 Now and forever more, forget any ideas you may have that your 
computer will free up more time for business or leisure.  Unless 
you're highly disciplined, it will do exactly the opposite.  The 
computer is a
labor-saving device, but the labor it saves leaves a hole in your 
life which needs to be filled.  Make plans for that time and 
exercise the needed discipline to follow through with those 
plans.  If you don't, you can resign yourself to losing that 
extra time to mahjongg, modeming or machine-gunning bad guys.  I 
have to accept this tradeoff to live with what I do.  Every time 
I put a copy of Solitile, Wolfenstein or Astrology for Windows on 
a business computer I feel not unlike a drug pusher.
7. Automate everything that can be automated
 Have your consultant or tutor set up simple programs to automate 
any daily business chore which can be automated.  This is one of 
the least time-consuming tasks involved in converting a business 
to computer, because all it requires is simple batch programming 
skills or configuration of existing software.  But it's also one 
of the most rewarding for the end user.  All popular operating 
systems, from DOS to Mac to UNIX, have plenty of 
readily-available and inexpensive software for automating tasks 
such as daily file backups, reports, employee or project 
scheduling and much more.  It can take as little as ten minutes 
for a consultant to configure a free or five-dollar program to 
execute a task with just a couple of keystrokes, but this can 
often result in several hours of time saved over the course of a 
year.
Automation is nice, but beware of over-reliance upon it.  Just as 
every driver should know how to check the oil and change a tire, 
every business needs at least one employee who knows the basics 
of the operating system used by the business.  Slight changes to 
a Windows or DOS setup can play havoc with heavily-automated task 
management.  A simple mistake can literally cripple a business 
until the consultant arrives.
I've encountered automated boot setups and menu systems so 
complex that the installer was the only one who could service the 
computer.  This creates an expensive and unnecessary dependency 
and a high level of fear in the user.  In this day and age, with 
ease of use at an all-time high, the goal of computerization 
ought to be self-reliance.
There are manual-free shareware and public domain training 
systems for DOS, Novell Netware and other systems which will 
teach employees the basics of the operating system, and these 
ought to be provided by every consultant to every new user.
8. Avoid dinosaur and "boutique" software
 Future problems with data compatibility could render your 
records worthless if your software becomes obsolete or too 
limited for your growing business.  Eventually you'll have to 
upgrade, and the data you create with oddball software might not 
convert to new file formats.  Insure that your data is 
future-proof by sticking with software which creates or exports 
its data in an industry-standard file format.  These formats 
include Lotus, dBASE, Rich Text and ASCII among others.  No 
developer of custom software worth their fees will leave you with 
a system which won't write or convert to an industry-standard 
format, but I've seen expensive specialty software which lacks 
this essential flexibility.
It seems sensible that incompatibility can be avoided by using 
what everyone else is using.  But we're talking about computers 
here, and this world often demonstrates a reality which defies 
everyday logic.  The vast majority of small businesses in Canada 
use Accpac for bookkeeping, but many businesses will discover 
that it has severe limitations not found in less popular popular 
packages such as QuickBooks or M.Y.O.B.  And it will come as a 
painful shock to many people when they discover that files 
created on the junior version of a widely-used business package 
cannot be directly transferred to the high-end version.  More 
shocking is the fact that the developer apparently has no plans 
to build this compatibility into future versions.
Inexpensive packages tend to be the most prone to 
incompatibility.  Don't skimp on software or you may some day 
have to convert years of data by hand to a new format or lose a 
lot of your records due to incompatibility.  It's a big step up 
from a basic accounting or spreadsheet package at $75-150 to 
full-featured software at $400 and up, but compare that to the 
cost of re-keying three years' worth of data.
9. No piece of software will do all you need it to do
 Chances are you'll need several different programs to accomplish 
everything.  The only way around this is to invest heavily in a 
complete, customized turn-key system created by a professional 
database programmer.  This isn't the fault of the software.  It's 
not necessarily even a problem.  The best stereo systems and TVs 
are modular, so why shouldn't the best software setup be modular 
as well?  What's important is that everything works well 
together.  A do-it-all accounting package might make a great 
ghetto blaster point-of-sale package for a small bookstore but it 
probably won't have enough power or definition for the 
distributors who supply them.
I personally have separate programs for time management, 
bookkeeping and invoicing, advertising, promotion and planning, 
and I'm just one man working out of my home.  On average I find 
it takes from five to eight different packages to properly 
automate and integrate a small owner-operated business.
Fortunately there's shareware to ease the financial burden.  If 
you have a modem and some computing experience, try a few of the 
many shareware databases, time managers, point-of-sale and 
accounting packages before deciding on anything.  There are free 
and shareware packages available for everything from babysitting 
and dating services to restaurants, body shops and dentists.  The 
quality ranges from spotty to downright astonishing.
You probably won't get all your needs met this way, but time 
spent testing shareware won't be time wasted.  Familiarizing 
yourself with features, limitations and interfaces will cut your 
training time and help you make much wiser buying and planning 
decisions.  On the other hand, if you don't know what's 
available, or what's possible, you could settle for something 
less than you really need at at cost of hundreds of hours' work 
every year.
It's been my experience that every small business will find at 
least one or two shareware packages which meet their specific 
needs better than anything available off the shelf.  At prices 
ranging from $5 to $300 business shareware isn't always cheap, 
but it's always available for a thorough test-drive.  You can't 
often say the same for retail software.
These packages can be obtained not from specialized software 
dealers, but from local bulletin boards, online services and 
specialty shareware vendors.  A lot of consultants look down 
their noses at shareware, but there are some who carry sizeable 
collections.  In fact, if I need something fairly specialized 
I'll look through shareware libraries before consulting any 
retail source.  More often than not I find exactly what I need.
10. Don't skimp on the human help
 If your needs are fairly basic and your heart is set on giving 
your business to someone local, hunt down a software dealer who 
truly understands small business.  Virtually every retailer 
carries the most popular accounting, database and time management 
packages, but that doesn't qualify them as professionals or 
experts.
In my experience, it's the odd salesman who has better than a 
basic understanding of more than one database or spreadsheet.  
The tidal wave of ignorance and misinformation is so enormous 
that even the support staff for major publishers can't always be 
trusted.  I was told by one telephone support person that their 
product wouldn't perform a needed function.  I only learned of 
this error when I ran into a salesman who let me examine the 
manual.  Sure enough, it did exactly what we needed it to do.
There's never enough product information supplied with any 
software and no substitute for a test-drive or a browse through 
the manual.  That often means opening the package, and there are 
still many dealers who won't do this for anyone but their regular 
customers.  The alternative?  Buy a package, install it,
test it out, and when it doesn't meet expectations, exchange it 
for another.  You can waste whole weeks playing this game, or you 
can spend an afternoon browsing manuals and program screens right 
in the store.  It all depends upon the retailer's level of 
commitment.
11. Conform or be isolated
 If you're an island, you can do as you please and cut every 
corner you wish.  File formats won't matter five years from now; 
you'll be able to scan a printout or convert files from just 
about any piece of business software no matter how obscure it 
might be.
But if you farm out parts of your operation out to other people, 
you have more than your own needs to consider.  You might save a 
lot of time and money if you can provide your hired guns with 
data in a format they can use.  Check with your bookkeeper, 
printer, advertising consultant and everyone else who assists 
your business operations to see which file formats they prefer.  
If it comes down to a choice between two packages, this 
information can make the decision much easier.
12. Brace for the break-in
 Remember that the worst part of computerizing a small business 
is the break-in period.  But once you're out of boot camp you'll 
wonder how you got along without it.


Oh, and if you still think this case was unique, let me tell you 
about my latest client.  Believe it or not, it's a computer shop.  
As astonishing as it may sound, the owner hasn't been able to 
find asuitable point-of-sale accounting package.  Just like my 
trucking client, everything he's tried is missing one or two 
essential features.  Frankly, I'm shocked.  The developers 
haven't even done journeyman service to their own suppliers!
This time I'm prepared.  I've just spent two weeks testing 
software.
  

The PC Owner's Survival Guide
Part 2: Maintenance


This section is by no means complete, but it will provide you 
with the tools you'll need to deal with a large number of 
potential problems and perform most of the basic maintenance 
needed by the average PC.


                       Section 1: System and software 
                        troubleshooting
                       Section 2: Do-it-yourself hardware 
                        maintenance
                      Section 3: Back it up!  Section 4: Upgrades 
                    and updates Important Note: If any of these 
jobs seems confusing or frightening to you, leave them for a 
serviceperson or a friend or relative whom you trust:
     a) not to harm your data, and
     b) to be able to recover from any problems that may occur 
       while they are trying to help.
  
Maintenance section 1:
System and software troubleshooting
The hardware is only as good as the software that runs on it.  
And the simple fact is that no matter how trouble-prone 
IBM-compatible hardware might be, the average user is far more 
likely to suffer software problems than hardware glitches.  
Fortunately the most common software problems are entirely 
preventable, and here are several simple do-it-yourself software 
fixes and hardware trouble-stoppers you can perform without 
knowing -- or caring -- what goes on "under the hood".


                         Making emergency start-up boot disks 
                          (Windows 3.1)
                         Making emergency start-up boot disks 
                          (Windows 95)
                         DOS and Windows backup disks
                         Checking your hard disk for errors or 
                          damage
                        CMOS data and battery replacement  Clock 
                      batteries: what they are and how to replace 
                      them Important Note: If any of these jobs 
seems confusing or frightening to you, leave them for a 
serviceperson or a friend or relative whom you trust:
     a) not to harm your data, and
     b) to be able to recover from any problems that may occur 
       while they are trying to help.
  
Maintenance section 2:
 Do-it-yourself hardware maintenance
Computerdom is a land where fear often rules over common sense.  
Some of the do-it-yourself maintenance discussed in the next 
section is actual under-the-hood work which can be done even if 
you've never seen the inside of a computer.  Even if you do 
decide to leave the engine work to real mechanics, there are 
still plenty of simple things you can do to keep your system 
trouble-free.
    Dust buildup: what to do...or not do
    Chip creep: when old chips decide to walk away
    Basic floppy drive maintenance
    Tape drives, CDs and backup floppies
    Printers: easy to please (well, most of them)
    Monitor maintenance...or not
 Important Note: If any of these jobs seems confusing or 
frightening to you, leave them for a serviceperson or a friend or 
relative whom you trust:
     a) not to harm your data, and
     b) to be able to recover from any problems that may occur 
       while they are trying to help.
  
Maintenance section 4: Upgrades and updates


This is one of the biggest minefields in computing.  It's time to 
get used to the idea that computer ownership is much like car 
ownership.  Some people like a new car every year or two.  Most 
of us prefer to stay with what we have.  The same is true of your 
computer hardware and software.  Here's some useful information 
on the "upgrade trap" and a checklist to help you avoid falling 
head-first into it.
    Upgrading how-to's, when-to's and when-not-to's
    An upgrading checklist
  
Making emergency start-up boot disks
A must-have accessory for Windows and DOS


No user should be without an emergency boot disk.  An emergency 
boot disk is a floppy disk you can use to start up your system 
when you can't get it to boot from the hard disk.  You may need a 
serviceperson or a local hero to restore your hard disk to normal 
functioning, or it could just be a temporary glitch that takes 
care of itself (these things still happen!).  Either way, an 
emergency boot disk will let you access your system in a limited 
way until you can restore your computer to normal functioning.
     The procedure outlined below is automated in two procedures 
called F-A-S-T Emergency Windows Backup and DOSBACK which are 
included as part of First Train.  It is recommended that you read 
the rest of this section to get an idea of how these two 
procedures do their stuff.
     You can make an emergency boot disk with almost every 
version and brand of DOS by using the SYS command from your C:\_ 
prompt, or by clicking Disk from the top menu bar, selecting 
Format and choosing Make System Disk from Windows File Manager.  
You can also use your DOS installation disks as an emergency 
restart kit, but it's a time-consuming, confusing and potentially 
risky way to get restarted.
Two disks are better than one


Actually, it's usually best to have two emergency boot disks, one 
which will start your system from floppy disk just the way it 
starts from the hard disk, and a second clean boot disk which 
does nothing but start DOS.
A full-featured emergency boot disk
     The best way to create your full-featured emergency boot 
disk is to type these commands at the C:\_ prompt after inserting 
a blank, formatted disk in Drive A. The first command copies the 
needed system software to the floppy.  The command you type is:
sys c: a:
....and press Enter.  This command creates a plain boot disk, and 
once you've done that, remove the disk and tuck it away in a safe 
place.  For your second emergency boot disk, you should type:
sys c: a:
....and press Enter again.
     The next set of commands adds your configuration files for 
DOS and Windows to this disk.  These are very important files and 
you should keep backups of these.  The commands are:
copy c:\config.sys a:   ...and press Enter, then type:
copy c:\autoexec.bat a:   ...and press Enter again.
     Once these files are on your floppy, your system should 
start from a floppy disk the same way it did from the hard 
disk...provided nothing is seriously wrong with the system.  
(Often it's just the DOS system files which are damaged or 
missing, or a misplaced copy of AUTOEXEC.BAT or CONFIG.SYS.)
Saving critical Windows and DOS files


This next set of commands copies all of your important Windows 
and DOS files to the floppy disk.  If you don't understand these 
commands, that's okay.  If you have these files, your 
serviceperson will be able to restore all or part of your system 
just the way you had it before, making it worthwhile to keep them 
around.  These commands will work on all standard DOS and Windows 
installations, but if your installation was not done in the 
normal way they won't work properly.  If you DOS reports File not 
found when typing these commands, don't worry.  It just means 
there were no appropriate files where DOS is looking for them.
These commands are typed at the C:\_ prompt from DOS.
md a:\windata
md a:\dosdata
copy c:\*.bat a:\dosdata
copy c:\*.ini a:\dosdata
copy c:\*.cfg a:\dosdata
copy c:\windows\*.ini a:\windata
copy c:\windows\*.grp a:\windata
copy c:\windows\*.dat a:\windata
copy c:\windows\*.cfg a:\windata
     You'll need to create a fresh, clean boot disk every time 
you upgrade to a new version of DOS, and you should create a 
fresh, full-featured boot disk every time you install one or more 
new programs on your system.



  
Making emergency start-up boot disks
Windows 95 makes it easy


Windows 95 gives you the option of creating an emergency start-up 
disk when you first install it on your system, and if you didn't 
do it then you can make one any time you like.  Here's how.
     1. Click the Start menu and select the Settings.
     2. From the new menu that appears, select Control Panel.
     3. When the icons appear for Control Panel, double-click on 
       Add/Remove Programs.
     4. At the top of the window that pops up you will see a tab 
       on the far right called Startup Disk.  There's only one 
       button to press and no options...it couldn't be easier.
     5. Store your emergency startup disk with your other 
       utilities.  If you start playing around with Windows 95's 
       configuration (and if you spend much time using it 
       eventually you'll want to do just that), you are almost 
       certain to need it at some point.

While we're on the subject of damage and emergency restarts, you 
do have your original DOS and Windows disks, don't you?  If your 
dealer sold you a system with DOS and Windows installed, they are 
breaking the law if they did not supply you with the manuals and 
either the original disks or images of those disks which you can 
make into disk copies using a program pre-installed on your 
computer for this purpose.
If you paid for DOS and Windows when you bought your system, you 
have a right to the disks and manuals.  A large number of novice 
users will need these disks to reinstall DOS or Windows at least 
once in their first year of computing.
  
Checking your hard disk for errors
Early in DOS' evolution Microsoft added a repair tool for hard 
disks and floppy disks called CHKDSK.EXE with their brand of DOS, 
and every other DOS manufacturer has since come up with their own 
version.  Newer versions of DOS and now Windows 95 include a more 
full-featured repair tool called Scandisk.  This program checks 
your hard disk for errors and corrects most of those it finds.  
Sometimes the errors are so serious that they ruin a whole 
software package.  Sometimes only a document is damaged, and if 
you're lucky the damage might occur with a file you'll never 
need.

CHKDSK.EXE is a very important procedure, and it should be done 
once a month even if you only use your system casually.  It's 
important because these errors can -- and do -- happen at any 
time for almost any reason.  A stray gamma ray from the sun can 
damage a file.  A glitch in DOS, Windows or one of your programs 
could do it.  It could simply be old age catching up with your 
computer.  But eventually almost everyone has disk errors.
A program Windows doesn't like


You can't run CHKDSK.EXE from Windows, or even by double-clicking 
the MS-DOS icon from Windows and typing CHKDSK.  Even if you have 
Windows 95, you will need to have the Windows version of Scandisk 
to use it from Windows.  In order to run CHKDSK.EXE you must quit 
Windows completely to do it, and you need to see the C:\_ prompt 
and the flashing underline cursor.
     The command you type to use CHKDSK.EXE as a repair tool and 
not just as a diagnostic test is:
chkdsk /f
....and press Enter.
     Run with the all-important /f parameter (for "fix"), 
CHKDSK.EXE will check the disk for errors and fix any errors it 
finds.  If you see messages saying entry truncated or crosslinked 
clusters while the program is working, you have file damage and 
CHKDSK.EXE is doing what it can to fix it.  Don't panic unless 
your programs stop working or begin to behave strangely, because 
most of the errors CHKDSK.EXE  will find are harmless.  If it 
finds "lost allocation units", it will ask you if you want to 
save them to files.  Always answer [Y]es.  You may never need 
this data, but if you do, it will be there for a technician to 
fix, and often this data can be used to repair a lost document in 
a fraction of the time it would take to recreate it.
Scandisk vs. CHKDSK.EXE


If you have MS-DOS 6.2 or higher, or Stacker, DOS will also ask 
if you want to run Scandisk to check for physical errors.  This 
is because CHKDSK.EXE only looks for file errors, which is 
digital garbage.  Scandisk looks for actual damage to the disk.
     Any time DOS or Windows tells you it can't find a certain 
sector, run Scandisk.  Otherwise it's usually safe to run it only 
about twice a year, or as often as four times a year once your 
system reaches three years of age.  Consult your DOS manual for 
more detailed information on Scandisk and CHKDSK.EXE errors and 
their meanings.
If you don't have MS-DOS 6.2 or higher, you don't have Scandisk.  
You can use Norton's Disk Doctor for this job if you have a copy 
of Norton Utilities or the Fix-it Disk that might have come with 
Norton Desktop for Windows.
  
CMOS Data and Battery Replacement


The CMOS is a chip inside your computer that holds important data 
regarding how your system is set up.  Particularly important is 
information about your hard disk, such as the number of heads 
(like the heads on your tape deck), the number of sectors and 
tracks (usually called cylinders on a hard disk, although that's 
not what they actually look like) and a few other things.  All 
too often dealers won't supply you with the manual for your hard 
disk when they sell you a computer, and that's often the only 
place you'll find this information.  Some dealers are nice enough 
to put the data on a sticker on the back of your computer, but 
most don't do this, so you'll have to get this information 
yourself.
     If you'd like to do the CMOS information backup exercise 
yourself, we suggest printing this topic by clicking File and 
selecting Print Topic.
A safeguard against catastrophe
Why do you need this information?  If you ever suffer a 
catastrophic failure, change your main circuit board 
(motherboard) or the clock battery in your computer dies, you'll 
probably lose this information and have to put it back by hand.  
If you've noticed that your system is losing several minutes or 
more a day when it never did before, it's a warning to get a copy 
of your CMOS system data right away, because your battery is 
probably on its last legs.
     There are many ways to get this information, and several 
utility programs claim to give it to you on disk, but if you 
can't get into your computer after a catastrophic failure, how 
will you ever read the information from the disk?  You should 
also have it on paper.
How to get to your CMOS data
     As you boot your system, you'll probably see a message that 
says:
Press <DEL> to run Setup
....or a similar message that tells you how to get to the 
computer's built-in setup or configuration program.  Do whatever 
the computer tells you to do to get to the setup program.  On 
some systems, you don't get this message.  You can force the 
computer to show you its setup screens by pressing and holding 
any key on the keyboard while it's booting up, and if that 
doesn't work, try pressing Ctrl+Alt+S, or any three-key 
combination of Ctrl+Alt+Shift plus Escape from the C:\_ prompt.  
If none of these work, you may need help to get the important 
CMOS information.
     On most systems from 286 to Pentium, there are two or more 
set-up menus.  There's usually a standard menu and an extended 
menu.  On 386 and 486 systems, you may also see an advanced 
chipset menu which comes with all kinds of warnings.  We're going 
to move carefully here and not change anything, so don't worry 
about the warnings.
The first CMOS menu screen
     Enter the standard CMOS menu first.  If the information is 
meaningless to you, don't worry about it.  It will have meaning 
to a serviceperson or computer handyman.  Turn on your printer 
and press the Print Screen or PrtSc key on your keyboard and see 
if you can print the information on this screen.  If you can't, 
try Shift+PrtSc.  If that doesn't work either, you'll have to 
copy the information down by hand.


You can stop after this first screen if you have a 286 or 386, 
because you now have the most important
information.  If you have a 486 or Pentium, it would be wise to 
get some more information.  Press the Escape key to exit the 
setup screen (or whichever key the computer tells you will exit 
without making changes) and you're done.
Other CMOS screens


Now enter the extended CMOS screen and print that screen too, and 
then print the advanced chipset screen as well.
     When you're done, either press the reset button on the front 
of the computer or -- if you understand what this means -- exit 
Setup without saving, and your computer will restart normally.  
File this information with your computer's manuals so you have it 
handy in event of an emergency.  It has saved thousands of people 
the cost of a service call or shop visit.
     The next topic describes the most common circumstance where 
most users need this information.
  

  
Clock batteries:
what they are and how to replace them
How to save a fifty-dollar service bill on a five-dollar 
replacement part


Almost all IBM-compatible computers come with a built-in 
rechargeable battery that keeps the clock active and stores the 
CMOS system data on a chip when the computer is turned off.  But 
like all rechargeable batteries, these wear down and eventually 
need replacing.  One day they'll simply refuse to take a charge 
and that's that.  
     These batteries are soldered directly to the computer's main 
circuit board and they're not usually considered replaceable.  
Instead, you purchase a CMOS battery pack, which is a small pack 
which holds four AA-cell batteries, has a self-adhesive sticker 
on the back, and a clip for attaching to the computer's main 
circuit board, for about $5.00.  These are becoming scarcer, and 
the more common type of replacement battery is a $15.00 five-year 
lithium battery.  If you can find the appropriate spot for it on 
the circuit board, just plug it in, stick it to a metal surface 
on the computer's case and you're finished.
     The plug confuses many users because it's usually not 
labelled, but if the connection posts on the motherboard say 
Battery, don't worry if you plug it in wrong.  It won't damage 
anything to plug it in backward, but it won't work either.
An important warning


On the other hand, if the connection posts are not labelled and 
you aren't sure where the plug should go, leave the job for 
someone else.  It is unlikely, but possible, that you could 
attach the battery plug to the wrong pins and accidentally fry a 
piece of hardware.
One of the flakiest parts on any PC


We have seen ten-year-old systems with rechargeable batteries 
still going strong and two-year-old top-of-the-line 486s whose 
batteries were already refusing to take a charge.  It's like a 
flat tire; you never know when, or if, you'll ever need a repair, 
and if you don't feel confident doing that, a serviceperson or 
serious hobbyist can do the job for you in about fifteen minutes.


If your battery dies before you can get the CMOS data copied down 
and you can't get the information you need from your dealer or 
serviceperson, MicroDrives Canada has a toll telephone line where 
they offer important technical data on virtually every kind of 
hard disk you're likely to see.  The number is 1-900-451-3036.  
The cost is CDN$5.00 for the first minute and CDN$3.00 for each 
additional minute.  If you open your computer and get the make 
and model number (for example TEAC SD-3105 or Seagate ST-535) 
before you call, you can usually get the information you need in 
less than two minutes.  You might also ask your dealer if they 
know of a less costly 1-900 line where you can get this 
information.
  
  
Dust buildup: What to do...or not do


We disagree with a lot of technicians about cleaning PC's.  In 
our opinion, internal cleaning of most older PC's simply isn't 
necessary in most cases.  Well-made systems will run for a decade 
and collect a quarter-pound of dust, lint and build-up, and by 
that time they're worth about the same as it costs for a 
professional cleaning.  Newer PC's are another matter.  Dust 
buildup contributes to heat buildup, and 486 and many Pentium 
computers create a lot of chip heat.
Goodbye to the worries of yesteryear


Most of the concerns of a few years ago (for example never 
smoking near a computer or discarding any floppy disk you've 
touched with your fingers or brushed with a hair) simply don't 
apply nearly as much today.  Disks, floppy drives and circuit 
boards are much more durable today, and it's not uncommon for 
five-year-old systems owned by chain smokers to have a visible 
brown film of tar on the circuits and never miss a heartbeat.
     The parts most likely to fail due to dust buildup are floppy 
disk drives, tape drives and power supplies.  Aside from the 
switches on the front of the case, these are probably the only 
components in your computer with moving parts...except for your 
CD-ROM drive, which can be cleaned with the same accessories you 
use for your home and car CD player.
A simple do-it-yourself procedure


All that's required to clean dust out of a PC is to remove the 
case screws (there are usually five on a desktop case and six on 
a tower case), disconnect the electrical cable and external 
device cables, take off the cover, carry the computer's chassis 
outdoors and either blow or fan the excess dust away.  When you 
finish blowing, push open the drive doors on the front of the two 
floppy drives and blow into them to clear any dust that may have 
settled there.  All that will be left is tar, if there are 
smokers who live or work near the computer; and/or a thin film of 
build-up on the circuit board.  This can cause short-circuits and 
partial circuits in some instances, 
     The only possible problem with this procedure is that 
blowing (or, for that matter, vacuuming) away the dust may leave 
small particles of debris on the floppy disk heads.  It's a good 
idea to run a cleaning disk through your floppies for five to 
fifteen seconds after a blow-out.
     Even this simple cleaning shouldn't be needed more than once 
a year, once every two years if you have a clean work area or an 
air filtration system.
Old PCs: better left alone?


There's some question about whether you should remove dust from 
an old PC at all, particularly if it's not showing any problems.  
All too often, office systems that sit stationary for years 
suddenly develop problems with cable connections and chip 
contacts when they're moved for cleaning or transport to another 
location.  Some servicepeople who have encountered this problem 
will avoid cleaning old 286 and XT systems unless their clients 
insist upon it.
     If you do decide to blow dust out of an old PC, take the 
opportunity to check cable and card connections while the machine 
is open, and chip connections as well.  Areas of high humidity 
tend to
cause earlier corrosion of contact points on cards and cables 
where they connect to the main circuit board of your PC, and 
sometimes they like a little jostling back and forth to scrub 
away the corrosion.
  
  
Chip creep: 
when old chips decide to walk away


Chips that sit in their own sockets (as opposed to those which 
are soldered directly to the circuit board) occasionally run into 
a peculiar problem known as chip creep.  The pins for these chips 
sit in spring-loaded sockets.  As the computer heats and cools 
every time you turn it on and off, these chips have a tendency to 
walk out of their sockets.


When and if you ever you open your computer for dusting, it 
wouldn't hurt to hunt down every socketed chip in your computer 
that you can easily get at with a finger or thump a and firmly 
press these chips back into their sockets.  You don't need to be 
gentle about this; you can press with about the same force you'd 
use on a thumb tack or push-pin.  You'll hear a squeaking sound 
as the pins reseat themselves if the chips have in fact climbed 
partway out of their sockets
An important caution


Be very sure when you do this job that your computer is plugged 
in so that it's grounded, that the power is turned off so you 
can't be electrocuted or accidentally short-circuit any 
components, and that you have at least one finger resting at all 
times on the metal case so that static electricity can't damage 
the chips with a sudden spark from your finger.
     Newer 80386, 80387, 80486 and Pentium chips use a special 
pin layout called a pin grid that you will almost never need to 
bother with.  It's only the centipede-like DIP components that 
have a tendency to creep out of their sockets.
  
  
Basic floppy drive maintenance


On some PC's, dust or cigarette tar will eventually stop a floppy 
disk drive from functioning.  It's not the disaster it was in 
days when replacing these drives cost several hundred dollars.  
In most cases you can restore a non-functioning floppy disk drive 
by running a head-cleaning disk through it for ten or fifteen 
seconds.  You can buy these disks for $2.00-$5.00 just about 
anywhere where computer supplies are sold.
A warning about old-style cleaning disks


If you're cleaning a 5-1/4 drive, don't use the old-style 
cleaning disks with the green cleaning surface.  The surface can 
be like sandpaper and will literally grind away your tape head, 
particularly if dirt particles have already accumulated on the 
surface from previous cleanings.  The new white-fabric-surface 
cleaning disks cost all of four dollars and are much gentler on 
your disk drive.  This is important to remember if you want to 
keep your old drive, because used 5-1/4 drives are becoming 
scarce.
To clean or not to clean?


The manufacturers of these cleaning disks recommend you use them 
every month or so.  We recommend using them only when you're 
having more difficulty than usual reading your floppy disks.  It 
seems that some brands of disk drives come from the factory with 
a protective lubricant on the heads that may be removed by the 
solvent and the scrubbing action of the disk.  We do know that 
many disk drives which have had no problems for years seem to 
become addicted to weekly cleanings once they've been cleaned for 
the first time using a cleaning disk with fluid.
  
  
Tape drives, CDs and backup floppies
Retensioning backup tapes


Have you ever taken out an old cassette tape you haven't played 
in a couple of years, popped it into the tape deck and noticed 
echoes in the music that weren't there before?  Those echoes are 
known as print-through.  If you're a rock fan, you may remember 
the pre-echoes on early Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath albums.  
They were the result of magnetic print-through contaminating 
layers of the master tape.
     Manufacturers recommend rewinding tapes every year or so 
whether they are played or not as a way to prevent this 
print-through.  Tape drives aren't supposed to have this problem, 
but they do suffer from other imperfections and require annual 
re-tensioning.
     If you use a Conner, Colorado or other popular brand of tape 
backup, you should see an option on the backup software's menu 
for re-tensioning the tape.  There may also be an option for 
checking the integrity of the data, and if you have tapes in 
long-term storage, they should be checked for integrity before 
and after retensioning, and the data recovered if errors occur.
Floppy disk life expectancy


Depending on their quality and density, floppy disks have a life 
expectancy of about five years.  Cheap no-name disks tend to last 
about half that long.  Tapes seem to expire at the whims of the 
fairies, but should last at least a year or two.  When important 
backup data reaches the end of the disk or tape's life 
expectancy, it should be backed up again to new media.  Keep both 
the old and the new disk or tape just in case the new disk dies 
of a defect before the old one...it happens more often than most 
people imagine!
     The first sector on the disk is usually the first to die, 
and regrettably it's also the most important.  if this part of 
the disk is damaged, you will often need to hire a data recovery 
expert at $50 an hour or more to get your data back for you.  Not 
a pleasant surprise when it's your 1989 diary, the novel you 
almost finished in '91 or last year's tax return.
Compact disks: not a good long-term bet


Compact disks are also prone to age, and if you want mass 
long-term storage on a custom-made CD, it would probably be a 
good idea to get two copies of the CD made at the same time.  The 
cost of the second copy is usually considerably less than the 
first, and areas that may show wear on the first copy five years 
from now will probably be okay on the second.
     Custom-made "one-off" CDs are particularly finicky.  This 
media is supposed to last for decades, but many corporate 
archives suffered disastrous early corruption when it was 
discovered that the material underneath the lens of the CD 
decayed in as little as two years, making the data unusable.
  
  
Printers: easy to please (well, most of them)


If you have a laser or inkjet printer, there's not much you need 
to do in the way of maintenance aside from the same cleaning 
you'd give any other appliance.  These are sophisticated units 
and should only be serviced by experienced professionals or a 
fairly competent handyman, but here are a few things you can try 
on your own if you own a laser printer with the Canon SX engine.  
(Hewlett-Packard LaserJets and many others use the Canon engine.)
Jams, fades, voids and specks


Have you been experiencing frequent paper jams?  One jam every 
two or three hundred pages is normal, but one in twenty is a real 
problem.  If there are no torn bits of paper in the paper path, 
you could try replacing the toner cartridge, particularly if it's 
getting on in years.  Poor quality, too-thin or too-heavy paper 
can also cause jams, and if none of these ideas solve the 
problem, get professional service.
     Print that is too light is a sign that your toner cartridge 
is just about used up.  Replace it before it dies completely, 
because a cartridge low on toner will leave excess toner deposits 
on the printer's fuser roller which binds the toner to the paper.  
This will result in spotty or distorted prints even after the 
cartridge is replaced.
     Vertical streaks, smears, blotches, voids, specks and print 
drop-out are all signs that a professional cleaning is needed.
Dot-matrix printer maintenance


Dot-matrix printers use ribbon cartridges rather than toner 
cartridges, and they generally only need cleaning every year or 
two.  Window cleaner can be used to clean the roller, and the 
best way to clean the print head is with a dry, worn-out ribbon.  
Dot-matrix printheads tend to be self-cleaning.  The ink used in 
all factory-specification ribbons contains a special lubricant to 
make sure that ink deposits don't build up on the print head's 
pins.
     Print a self-test page (your manual will show you how to do 
this) with a worn-out ribbon, and this will usually clear any ink 
deposits from your print head's pins.  If it doesn't, you may 
need a new print head, and unless you need your dot-matrix 
printer for multi-part forms, a new print head will probably cost 
more than your printer is worth.  Used dot-matrix printers are 
seldom worth more than $100 and usually less than $50 unless 
they're heavy-duty units for commercial use.
     Dust can be cleared from dot-matrix printers the same it is 
cleared from inside a computer: remove the ribbon cartridge, take 
the unit outside and blow into it.
  
Monitor maintenance?  Well, let's see...how often do you take 
your TV set in for routine maintenance?  Never?  Then why do it 
with your monitor?  They can be cleaned of dust every couple of 
years if needed, but aside from that the only real maintenance 
they need is an occasional wipe of the screen with some window 
cleaner.
There is one exception.  If you are concerned about 
electromagnetic and x-radiation from the picture tube, you should 
have the monitor's flyback adjusted every year or two by a 
technician with the proper measuring instruments.  Even 
low-radiation monitors may be well above government standards for 
emissions after a couple of years of use.
    
Upgrading how-to's, when-to's and when-not-to's
Overpaying for underperformance


There are literally millions of people who have spent too much 
(often far too much) on hardware or software for the job at hand.  
Many were coerced into upgrades they didn't need.  When work bogs 
down because of a slow system, it's obviously time to step up, 
but don't make the mistake of upgrading for upgrading's sake.
Thinking realistically


If you are productively using Lotus 1-2-3 for DOS or WordPerfect 
5.1, think long and hard before jumping on the Windows bandwagon.  
Yes, studies have shown that there are performance benefits, but 
other studies have shown that there are minimal gains to be made 
by switching from DOS, and lost productivity in the learning 
period could wipe out any time savings you might expect over the 
following year.  The point is that no one except you or a 
consultant familiar with your work can say unequivocally that 
yes, you will come out ahead with an upgrade.
Upgrading operating systems: a crap shoot


Been told that you have to have that new version of DOS?  The 
simple fact is that most businesses don't need anything more than 
MS-DOS 5.0 or PC-DOS 5.1.  In most cases, the benefits of DOS' 
newer features are barely noticeable on office systems running 
DOS or Windows.  Home systems seem to prefer DOS 6.0 or higher 
mainly due to the enhanced memory management needed by many 
games.

     If, on the other hand, shrinking hard disk space is your 
biggest current problem, an operating system upgrade to MS-DOS 
6.22, with built-in DriveSpace disk compression; IBM or Novell 
DOS 7.0, with the superior Stacker compression software; will add 
an enormous amount of new free disk space, saving you the cost of 
upgrading hard disks until you need a whole new computer system.  
Windows 95 also offers disk compression, but this is one the 
worst possible reasons for choosing it as an upgrade.
     As for Windows, look hard at the real benefits of Windows 
3.11 or Windows 95 on a home or office system before jumping from 
the version you're using.  The performance increase promised by 
the Windows for Workgroups Add-On has often been far less than 
spectacular, and its extra software is generally useless to 
people who do not compute on LAN-type networks.
Version X.0 anything (especially 1.0) is a gamble
Treat software upgrades like new model cars: give the 
manufacturer time to work out first-run bugs before taking the 
plunge, unless the promised improvements are so great that you 
can't resist.  Improved features often come at the expense of 
serious bugs that don't show up until the product is out in the 
marketplace.  Let those users who have to have the new product 
troubleshoot it and suffer the growing pains so that you don't 
have to.
     As a general rule, give a new program six months and see if 
the manufacturer doesn't release an intermediate upgrade to fix 
bugs.  MS-DOS 6.0, CorelDraw 4.0, and IBM-DOS 5.0 and 6.0 were 
prime examples of new-release nightmares.  According to many 
insiders, the Windows 95 upgrade released in September of 1995 
had many bugs -- some serious -- that Microsoft allegedly knew 
were there when
they shipped the software.
Bigger is not necessarily better


The newest releases of most popular IBM-compatible productivity 
applications are horrendous overkill.  They all seem to have far 
more features, hooks, extras and gadgets than any user will ever 
need.  The standard line in the industry these days is that 
you'll only use ten percent of your software, but that wasn't 
always the case.  Choose functionality now over room to grow for 
the future....because at the rate the industry is going, there 
might not be a future.
     Computer hardware loses value so quickly that it only makes 
sense to buy "in advance of need" with inexpensive components 
with non-silicon-based operation.  These components include 
cases, monitors and disk drives.  Virtually everything else will 
drop dramatically in price as newer, bigger and better comes to 
the marketplace.
The worst news of all: most upgrades are downgrades


The dirty secret in the computer industry is that hardware is not 
keeping pace with software.  Software is a consumable, something 
we are expected to buy on an annual or biannual basis.  Not so 
with computers, and as a consequence software has become much 
more complex and full-featured (many believe over-featured) than 
the hardware can handle.
     More and more users are learning -- the hard way -- that the 
only way to make peace with these new "monster applications" is 
to buy them big, comfortable homes.  software upgrades often 
demand hardware improvements, but the size, complexity and power 
of today's industry standard applications frequently demand 
top-of-the-line hardware before they're usable for any serious 
work.
     Don't believe it?  Try running a new word processor on a 
standard Pentium machine with Windows 95 and comparing various 
operations with the speed of a standard 386 machine running a 
word processor of its day and Windows 3.0 or 3.1.  Granted, some 
operations will be quicker on the new machine, but you might be 
very surprised -- and dismayed -- at how slowly many others are 
performed.  Oh yes, the Windows 95 Pentium machine will be more 
full-featured, but how many of those features will you actually 
use?
An industry seduction


Five years ago this curse was reserved for elite versions of 
productivity programs which might have sold for thousands of 
dollars instead of hundreds...or less.  Rapidly expanding home 
and business markets have permitted publishers to offer their 
top-of-the-line products at economical prices.  This means 
greater access to quality software, but all too often the product 
is monstrous overkill.  How many users need the complexity of a 
Quattro Pro or a WordPerfect, even at less than $100?  Most users 
can survive quite comfortably, and all too often more 
efficiently, with the spreadsheet or word processor packaged with 
a works suite.


There is still a strong public perception that you need the 
industry standard applications to be competent and compatible.  
But think about this.  If you could suddenly buy Greyhound luxury 
touring buses for the price of a tent trailer, could you afford 
the gas, maintenance, licensing and driving lessons it would 
require?  Make no mistake, when high-end applications go on offer 
at bargain-basement prices, you face the same sort of dilemma.
  
  
An upgrading checklist
Here's an antidote to upgrade insanity.  The next time you 
consider an upgrade to your productivity software or utilities, 
ask yourself the following questions.  Print this topic if you 
like to have it as a ready reminder.  If you can't answer yes to 
question 7 and at least four others, think twice about upgrading 
until you feel a definite lack in your efficiency or comfort.  
Stick with what you have, with what you know, and your 
productivity will benefit.  It's particularly important as a new 
Internet user to keep an eye on the challenges you give yourself 
because making the most of the net will require a fair bit of 
learning.

     You should also notice a side benefit from the increased 
comfort of staying with what you have: greater creativity.  
Nothing saps creativity like too much new information and too 
little knowledge to put it to use.
1. Can your hardware take the performance hit you're almost 
certain to suffer with any major upgrade?  If not, will it be 
cost-effective to upgrade both your hardware and your software to 
accommodate the demands of these new features?2. Very few major 
upgrades are truly plug-and-play.  Even if it's only the 
interface which has changed, you'll still need time to adjust to 
it.  Can you afford the time and stress required to learn the new 
features?
     3. The more system hooks, utilities and replacements you use 
-- and there are hundreds available for every popular operating 
system -- the greater your chances of incompatibility with your 
existing set-up.  Are you willing, or even able, to troubleshoot 
these problems?  If you're not sure, answer no.
     4. Your competitors might still be using a 1983 version of 
VisiCalc on an old Apple ][ system, and using it effectively.  Do 
the demands of your work truly necessitate the improvements this 
new version will offer?
     5. No ethical consultant will advise an upgrade unless there 
are clear productivity benefits or the client is feeling 
restrained by their current software.  Are the new features 
things you already know how and where you'll use, or goodies 
you've been craving for some time?  Are you sure they're not 
gadgets you'll play with for a day or two and never find a use 
for?
     6. Many, if not most consumers, purchase top-of-the-line 
software because an advertisement, a colleague or a consultant 
hyped them into believing they needed it.  Were you suffering 
before you heard that the latest version does things you can't do 
now?
     7. When you buy productivity software, you're essentially 
purchasing a slave.  Its references ought to meet the same 
standards you'd apply to any prospective employee.  Have trusted 
colleagues or industry professionals proven to you that the new 
version will faithfully perform the tasks you expect of it?
  

Right computing for the 1990s and beyond


This section might be a touch too "bleeding-heart" or 
touchy-feely for some readers.  You might want to skip this part 
of the PC Owner's Survival Guide, but we felt that since the 
information was available and since such a large number of people 
are currently interested in these issues that we'd include the 
section for those who might want it.
     The present generation of personal computers is still a long 
way from the ideal of a human-friendly appliance with the promise 
of being a great equalizer of culture, intelligence and 
creativity.  The image of computers as the domain of the 
misanthropic and the disenfranchised still prevails, and this 
image is often fostered by the industry itself.  Love them or 
hate them, the beasts have valid reasons for being.  They save 
time, enhance creativity, keep better records, and offer 
unparalleled opportunities for low-cost education and 
entertainment.  But if you expect to achieve these benefits at a 
minimal cost to your soul and your health, be prepared to spend a 
little more time and money than the most owners.  Responsible 
technology always seems to demand more than simple consumption.
     Many of the topics discussed here are dealt with in 
considerably more depth in The Ergonomics Report.
  Software
    Legal issues regarding software and copyrights
    Software publishing: information marketing or cybertraffick?
  Hardware
    Letting go of the Joneses
    Radiation and emissions protection
    Visual stress reduction
    Noise reduction
    Gas-off from new computers
  
Legal issues regarding software and copyrights
Software piracy: playing in moral grey areas


Self-honesty is usually the best place to start.  When it comes 
to PCs the average owner is far more likely to fudge on their own 
ethics when it comes to software than perhaps any other area of 
their life.
     software piracy -- the use of illegal copies of copyrighted 
commercial software -- is a serious concern to the industry.  
Several years and tens of millions of dollars have been spent 
searching for ways to combat loss of revenue without alienating 
the public.  It's a battle they won't soon win.  Piracy is the 
norm among home and business PC users, not the exception, and 
that's not likely to change in the near future.
     So where do your rights begin and end?  Simply put, you do 
not own software outright unless the author has expressly given 
you that right, just as you don't own the music in your album 
collection.  What you own is a license to use it.  Terms of 
individual licenses vary, but most programs permit you the use of 
a single copy on a single computer.  You can't legally have one 
copy of the DOS or Windows operating systems on both your home 
computer and your notebook, even though you can only use one 
computer at a time.  But you can legally use the same copy of 
most applications and utilities on both computers, provided that 
both systems aren't running the same program at once.
Morality aside, there's also the addiction issue


If you're not clear about your own ethics, it's all too easy to 
watch a software habit spiral out of control.  It's not uncommon 
for hobbyists and professional users alike to build collections 
of dozens of programs worth thousands of dollars, only own 
licenses for a few, and only use a select handful for more than a 
couple of days.  Veteran users tend to agree that there's nothing 
morally wrong with borrowing a program you only need to use once 
or twice.  The same is usually true about purchasing an upgrade 
version of a popular package at a fraction of the cost of the 
full version even if you don't own an older copy of that program.
     Industry-watchers aren't shedding many tears over the lost 
revenues of the Microsofts, Novells and Lotuses of this world.  
Instead they mourn the effect piracy has had on smaller 
developers.  There are literally tens of thousands of skilled 
programmers who create useful software and distribute it either 
as shareware or in short production runs by mail order or through 
distributors.  The sad truth is that the average user is far more 
likely to pay $500 for a package they'll use less than once a 
week than to mail a $25 registration cheque to the publisher of 
the program they've used every day for a year to connect with the 
Internet.  The shareware segment of the industry has suffered 
enormously due to piracy.
The low-tech, free software alternative


There are thousands of programs available with no-cost licenses 
to do most of the things you want to do, from spreadsheets to 
chess games, but tracking them down isn't easy.  Giving up 
full-featured pirateware for freeware usually means giving up a 
lot of nice features.  Erasing expensive programs you only need 
once or twice a year and can't afford to buy can feel like 
unnecessary self-denial.  The registration fees for every 
shareware program you've used enough to warrant payment could 
easily total several hundred dollars.  Going legal is a tough 
choice that often involves compromise and hair-splitting, and the 
decision is actually made more difficult by the behavior of the 
same companies that scream the
loudest about piracy.
  
  
Software publishing: marketing or trafficking?
Victims of the hype


If you saw Microsoft's Christmas 1994 television ad campaign 
(This stuff is powerful...use it!) and sensed a strong similarity 
between their appeals and the seductive come-on of a drug pusher, 
you're not alone.  What other consumer product industry refers to 
its target market as users?  The industry has succeeded so 
brilliantly in creating the illusion of need for a product that 
didn't exist twenty years ago that it has public sanction to 
label first-time owners dummies.
     The ethics of many top industry players are considered so 
bad by industry-watchers that there have been campaigns 
encouraging boycotts, government-mandated sell-offs, class-action 
suits and public anti-copyright revolt, variously centered around 
Apple, IBM, Intel and Microsoft.  And when you look at the facts 
it's not hard to see why.
     It's hard to resist the temptation to write your own rules 
when you control your market as well as these firms have.  It's 
doubly difficult to resist the temptation of pirating a copy of 
DOS, Windows 95 or MS Office when you hear insiders refer to 
Microsoft over coffee as "cyberthugs" and toss off the phrase 
almost casually, as if Microsoft is only one of a dozen firms 
they could mention.  (Our legal advisors have cautioned us 
against attributing this epithet to the person who actually used 
it or continuing in this particular vein.  Suffice it to say that 
he/she is one of the best-known computer spokespeople and 
consumer advocates writing today.)  In fact, piracy can seem 
downright virtuous when you realize that the reality of a 
Windows-dominated world leaves the consumer with little 
alternative choice.  Apple has been slammed nearly as hard for 
their own business practices, and the complexity of OS/2 leaves 
the average consumer with almost no other viable choices.
  
  
Letting go of the Joneses
Ah, those good old 16-bit days...


One of the easiest ways to get around the copyright dilemma is to 
voluntarily remain in dinosaurland, to stay behind the times as a 
conscious choice.  You can purchase an old Mac or IBM-compatible 
286 or 386 for a few hundred dollars.  Privately-sold used 
systems usually include plenty of software, and most of these 
older systems are more than adequate for most jobs.
     A non-color 286 system might sell for one-tenth the cost of 
a comparably-equipped Windows system.  An older Mac II with 
software could be as little as one-fifth the cost of a new 
system.  It's common to find used copies of WordPerfect for DOS, 
Bedford Accounting and dBASE at pennies on the dollar.  We often 
see them at garage sales for a dollar to ten dollars a copy.
Other benefits of low-tech
     Older hardware may have benefits beyond low cost.  The 
industry has made significant advances in providing inexpensive, 
energy-efficient, low-emission products.  Most new software is 
designed for high-powered processors and color monitors, and many 
find that these produce uncomfortable levels of several types of 
pollution.  Lurid color overstimulates the visual cortex.  
Electromagnetic radiation from chips, picture tubes and power 
supplies plays havoc with immune function.  Printers and fans 
make noise.  Some claim that even the gyroscopic effect of a hard 
disk can have harmful effects.  Older and less powerful systems 
tend to produce significantly less radiation than newer units.  
Unfortunately they also tend to produce a lot more noise.
  
  
Radiation and emissions protection


Processor chips and other components emit extremely low frequency 
(ELF) electromagnetic emissions of a type that is difficult to 
protect against without lead shielding or expensive devices such 
as the Teslar ELF-shielding watch.  The World Health Organization 
issued cautions about ELF exposure more than a decade ago.  Some 
monitors protect against this type of radiation, but power 
supplies and even a computer's electrical cables can also produce 
significant amounts of this radiation.


This button connects with the section of the Ergonomics Report 
included with the kit which talks in much more depth about 
radiation-related issues regarding computers and high-tech.
  
  
Visual stress reduction
Flicker


Color monitors in particular are prone to flicker.  Monitor 
flicker is an optical and nervous stressor that some allege has 
negative effects on our thought processes by encouraging abnormal 
brainwave frequencies and resonances.  Older amber and 
black-and-white monitors produce flicker at a much lower 
intensity; older color monitors on the other hand can be 
extremely stressful in prolonged use.
     Newer non-interlaced monitors often claim to eliminate 
flicker...provided they're configured properly.  Many are not.  
Even a perfectly tuned LR/NI (low-radiation, non-interlaced) 
monitor doesn't actually eliminate flicker.  Instead it reduces 
the perception of flicker by decreasing intensity and increasing 
frequency beyond the visible threshold.  It has been theorized, 
but not proven, that increasing refresh rate (the rate at which 
the color guns repaint the whole screen) turns a high-intensity 
30-cycle-per-second visual and nervous stressor into a 
low-intensity 60cps stressor which affects psychic function.  If 
true, color picture tubes of any kind will not be conducive to 
developing one's subtler senses.


The only affordable alternative to traditional cathode ray tube 
(CRT) monitors at this time is the LCD (liquid crystal display) 
screen found on laptop and notebook computers which don't flicker 
at all.  LCD screens produce dimmer but much crisper images, and 
most people find them less visually appealing than CRT monitors.  
In recent conversations with computer professionals we have 
uncovered a large number of closet LCD-lovers who wait anxiously 
for the day when these screens become the norm in home computers.
  
  
Noise reduction
Taming the digital din


Laptops are also very quiet, and computer noise can be a serious 
stressor for sensitive or creative people.  Practically every new 
desktop computer available today comes with two cooling fans, one 
for the power supply and another smaller fan for the central 
processing chip.  They also have hard disks that whine 
incessantly unless they're configured to shut down after a period 
of time.  (The new Green PC standard allows monitors, CPUs and 
hard disks on properly configured IBM-compatibles to 
automatically power down to save energy after a few minutes of 
inactivity.) Low-noise fans are one option, but disconnecting the 
fans permanently will eliminate noise problems.
     Any capable serviceperson can disconnect both fans in less 
than half an hour, but most will strongly advise against it.  You 
will likely be told that reduced cooling will almost certainly 
result in early chip failure.  Who cares?  After five years the 
average PC has lost at least 80 percent of its value, and most 
heat-sensitive components have life expectancies of more than ten 
years in normal use.  A fanless power supply might fail much 
sooner than a CPU chip, possibly in under a year, but once again, 
who cares?  What artist or teacher will object to an annual 
$100-$125 power supply replacement for the sake of as much as 
40dB less background noise in their workspace?
Airing your computer's guts


IBM-compatibles can be effectively ventilated fan-free by 
removing plastic covers from unused disk drive bays on the front 
of the case and unscrewing card slot flanges and connector 
knock-outs from the rear.  The top half of the power supply's 
housing can be permanently removed to improve ventilation and 
prolong life.  Chip fans can be replaced with less efficient, 
noiseless heat sinks for just a few dollars.  (Many 486 and 
Pentium processors will behave strangely without a heat sink of 
some sort.) Desktop cases can be turned on their sides like 
tower-style cases, and the convection currents created by chip 
heat will take care of the rest.
     Removing the fans will eventually make you painfully aware 
of the noise made by the average hard disk, particularly on older 
XT's and 286's.  Much of it is resonant whine from the drive 
vibrating the computer's metal case; hard disk whine isn't nearly 
as noticeable on the average laptop.  You can't eliminate this 
noise without unbolting the drive and encasing it in a Styrofoam 
block, which makes the drive too hot to be viable.  But there's 
no reason why a home system that never gets moved can't have its 
hard disk unbolted and held up by two small strips of foam to 
allow air to circulate around its housing.  This can eliminate up 
to 80 percent of hard disk noise with almost no significant 
increase in operating temperature.


Both of these procedures are safe if performed by a competent 
serviceperson, but be aware that they will probably void the 
manufacturer's warranty.
     Virtually noise-free computers can be purchased for basic 
work, as long as you don't mind the hassle of loading everything 
from floppy disks.  Second-hand Atari 1040STs and older Macs 
without fans or hard disks can be had for as little as $100.  
Both offer excellent high-resolution black-and-white screens 
which are more than adequate for word processing, drawing, 
everyday desktop publishing, games and bookkeeping.  The data 
these older systems create will usually be convertible for use 
with newer Mac and Windows software, and high-quality software 
can be purchased for them for pennies on the
dollar.
    
Gas-off from new computers
The computer stressor no one talks about


New computers have an additional drawback most people don't 
consider until they get the beasts home: gas-off.  Newer PC's 
tend to generate far more waste heat than their ancestors did, 
and power supplies work harder to keep up with the increased 
demand of high-resolution color monitors and powerful processors.  
Any component that generates enough heat will evaporate nearby 
chemical residues from the manufacturing process.  Plastic parts 
give off residues for anywhere from weeks to years after 
manufacture, and heat will accelerate the gas-off rate.  Some 
sensitive noses may even detect paint odor from a new computer's 
metal case.
     Manufacturers and retailers are not likely to consider these 
fumes any more harmful than body odor, but many people report 
increased sensitivity and physical symptoms during the first few 
weeks of ownership.  The only solution, aside from purchasing a 
used machine or a demo unit, is to leave a new computer running 
constantly in a warm, well-ventilated area with the monitor on 
and a screen saver activated for as long as it takes for fumes to 
drop to tolerable levels, usually one to six weeks.
  

Random jottings


This section of tidbits may not save your soul, your sanity or 
your data, but we did have the material lying around, and since 
it takes up so little space, relatively speaking, in the kit, we 
decided to add it for your enlightenment and amusement.
    DOS 6.0's buggy disk compression
    Cleaning out those useless files
    Delete protection: how to reclaim your own trash
    Reclaiming DOS memory
    Better sound without better speakers
    Two timeless Windows tips
    If DOS won't verify your data, who will?
    Transferring old data to new computers
    Silence is golden, not necessarily deadly
    Surge protectors: no best-before dates here
    Did you know...(a collection of truly random tips)



If you're using MS-DOS 6.0 with DoubleSpace compression software 
and haven't upgraded to MS-DOS 6.2 or 6.22, do it now!  Beg, 
borrow or steal a copy of the DOS 6.2 or 6.22 upgrade.  Microsoft 
only released this update after users lost thousands of files due 
to serious bugs in the software, and class action suits were 
actually launched against Microsoft as a result.  Retail update 
disk packs are nearly sold out (you may find them at parts depots 
and a few mom-and-pop computer outlets), but the needed files can 
usually be obtained free from your regular support person.  They 
may also be available from Microsoft's FTP site at 
ftp.microsoft.com.
  
Cleaning out those useless files


This section might be a little too technical for some users.  If 
you do not have experience working with DOS or Windows' File 
Manager you may wish to skip this section until you have a little 
more ability in the area of file management.
Pruning the deadwood
There's nothing like a ton of deadwood on a hard disk for scaring 
PC owners into believing they need upgrades that often aren't 
necessary.  It's not uncommon for a well-used 386 to accumulate 
more megabytes of useless Windows files than useful data.  It's 
often possible to prune enough dead weight from a hard disk to 
postpone the need for an upgrade for to another two or three 
years.
     The precision pruning usually done by support professionals 
and technicians is usually too risky for the average user, but 
freeing an extra 10 to 50 megabytes of free space on a tight 
system is easy for any intermediate-level user once they know 
where the deadbeat data hangs out.  In fact, useless data is so 
prevalent on IBM-compatibles that it's usually possible (but 
never advisable) to trim as much as 25 percent of the data on a 
system that's never been used without ever affecting its 
performance.


Many publishers have capitalized on this an created several 
automated routines for clearing out this useless data. CleanSweep 
is now available for old and new versions of Windows.  Newer 
versions of Norton Utilities contain duplicate file killer 
utilities.  Several other useful utilities are available as 
shareware.  But if you don't want to spend the money on a 
dedicated hard disk cleaning utility there is usually a lot of 
trimming you can do yourself with a little guidance.


Click the printer button to print a copy of this topic as a 
reference in case you'd like to try it on your own.
Being your own maid


The first files to go should be Windows temporary files.  In 
almost every case they're a complete waste of space.  If you've 
used any serious Windows application for more than a month, you 
probably have useless .TMP files on your system which are doing 
nothing but taking up space.  Users who turn off their computers 
before properly shutting down Windows can accumulate literally 
hundreds of dead .TMP files a year.
     Depending on how the system was set up, .TMP files could be 
hiding in the C:\DOS directory, C:\WINDOWS, C:\TEMP, or a TEMP 
directory tucked inside of WINDOWS.  These files are 
distinguishable as trash by the characteristic " ~ " at the front 
of their name and .TMP at the end (e.g. ~WRI3125.TMP).  Using 
File Manager, DOSSHELL or DOS' dir and cd commands, find the 
directory containing these files and delete every file beginning 
with ~ and ending in .TMP.  If you're working from the DOS prompt 
and you're in the directory containing the useless files, use 
this command to erase them all at once:
del ~*.TMP


It's important that you only erase .TMP files, because .EXE, .DOC 
and other files with the same "~" character might be needed 
later.  Don't risk losing them for the little space they usually 
take up.  If you
know what you are doing, you might want to check the dates on 
these files, and if they are more than a couple of weeks old you 
can usually consider them safe to delete.
A permanent end to temporary clutter


Here's a trick for making sure you never have to do the job 
again.  Start Notepad and Open AUTOEXEC.BAT by typing 
C:\AUTOEXEC.BAT in the File Name: box (top left corner).  Add the 
following at the very start of the file:
del c:\dos\~*.tmp
....then press Enter, Save the file, and Exit.  (If you found the 
..TMP files in C:\TEMP, type del c:\temp\~*.tmp instead; if you 
found them in a TEMP directory inside of the Windows directory, 
type del c:\windows\temp\~*.tmp, etc.)  From now on, every time 
you start your computer DOS will make a lightning-fast check of 
the directory where .TMP files are stored and automatically erase 
any deadwood it finds.  If there's nothing to erase, DOS will 
display a congratulatory File Not Found message, letting you know 
that you quit Windows properly the last time you used it and no 
stray .TMP files were left over.
Erasing leftover DOS versions
     The next best place to look for deadwood is in old DOS 
directories.  If you've upgraded DOS since you bought your 
computer, you probably have from one to ten megabytes of leftover 
DOS versions you'll never need again.  


MS-DOS versions 6.0 and higher have a new tool for dealing 
expeditiously with this waste.  If after a month or so you've 
discovered no reason to switch back to your previous DOS version, 
you can erase your dud DOS directory by typing DELOLDOS at any 
command prompt (C:\>_ , C>_ , C:\WINDOWS\>_, etc.) or by clicking 
File and then Run from Program Manager and typing DELOLDOS in the 
Command Line: box.  
     Erasing an unwanted version of DOS 5.0 might free up as much 
as 3Mb; unneeded versions of DOS newer than 6.0 are probably 
using up at least 4Mb and possibly as much as 10Mb each.  No 
small potatoes if you're still tied to a 120Mb hard disk.


Sometimes you'll have several OLD_DOS directories on your system.  
If so, you can erase them quickly by highlighting any OLD_DOS 
directory from File Manager, pressing Delete, and telling Windows 
to erase everything when it asks about specific files.
A faster burial for dead DOS
     You can also trim a lot of fat from your current DOS 
directory without causing serious problems, particularly if you 
have DOS 6.0 or higher.
      Don't use the built-in antivirus program?  You'll free up 
well over a megabyte by killing all files in the C:\DOS directory 
starting with MSAV and MWAV.
      Don't use Microsoft Backup?  Clear nearly two megabytes by 
erasing all files starting with MSB and MWB.
      Don't use DOSSHELL?  Erase all files starting with DOSS and 
as much as another megabyte is freed up.
      Don't want disk compression?  Kill all files starting with 
DRV and DBL for another half-megabyte or more.
      Use PC-DOS, DR-DOS or Novell DOS?  Check the manuals...they 
also have goodies you don't need which could be taking up 
precious hard disk space.


In most cases it's wise to stop your DOS pruning here, but you 
can usually erase a lot more files from MS-DOS 6.0 or higher 
without ever noticing it...as long as your system is not a 
laptop, has a VGA or SVGA monitor, and you don't use DOS HELP or 
any DOS programs older than 1992.  The files most users will 
never miss include all files starting with A, ED, EG, FA, G, 
HELP, I, K, L, N, Q, R and X; as well as COUNTRY.SYS, 
DELTREE.EXE, DISKCOMP.COM, DISPLAY.SYS, DRIVER.SYS, FASTHELP.EXE, 
FASTOPEN.EXE, FC.EXE, FIND.EXE, MOVE.EXE, SORT.EXE, SUBST.EXE, 
TREE.COM, VSAFE.COM and XCOPY.EXE.


Just to be on the safe side, make a DOSTEMP directory, move these 
files into it, and wait a month before deleting them just to be 
sure you're not erasing something you were never told you needed.  
Add another meg and a half of free space if you can do without 
the whole list.
A data diet for Windows


     The WINDOWS and WINDOWS\SYSTEM directories probably contain 
several more megabytes of files you'll never need, particularly 
if you use Windows for Workgroups and don't use any of the 
Workgroups features such as mail, scheduling or fax.

     Never erase a Windows file you don't recognize and expect 
things to operate properly.  Always move potentially expendable 
files to a temporary dumpsite directory and wait a month or two 
before deleting them.  In general it's best to leave Windows 
pruning to an uninstaller program designed for the job or a 
technician who knows which programs need which files.
Goodbye to backups


The next space hog to seek out is the .BAK file.  Many 
applications preserve backup copies of your work in case you're 
not satisfied with your most recent revision, and it's surprising 
how many users never realize they exist.  Over a year or two, 
..BAK files can chew up dozens of megabytes on a well-used office 
computer.  There's no quick way to get rid of them from DOS.  
Hunting through every directory with File Manager or DOSSHELL is 
probably the quickest manual method if you don't have access to 
one of the many freeware programs that do the job automatically. 
     However, if you have PKZIP.EXE on your system -- an 
extremely common "technician's leftover" from service or setup, 
and an essential modemer's accessory -- here's a lightning-fast 
set of commands for removing every .BAK and .BKP file on your 
hard disk.  It works by building a list of all such files on your 
system, getting PKZIP.EXE to move every file on the list to a 
central location, including duplicate files with the same name, 
and then deleting the whole garbage heap in one fell stroke.  
This routine doesn't actually compress the data but only moves 
it, so it's almost as quick on a 286 as a Pentium.
     dir /b /s c:\*.bak>c:\ziplist
     dir /b /s c:\*.bkp>>c:\ziplist
     pkzip -e0 -m -r -P c:\trash.zip @c:\ziplist 
     del c:\trash.zip 


This routine is an excellent tool for sweeping out many other 
types of deadwood. Don't have a sound card to play .WAV or .MID 
files?  You can erase them just as easily with the same commands 
by substituting *.wav or *.mid for *.bak in the above script.  If 
you've switched virus scanners, you can clean up old, unneeded 
Microsoft Antivirus checklists by replacing the dir commands with 
dir /b /s c:\chklist.ms>ziplist and using the same PKZIP.EXE 
command.


Don't get carried away with your pruning...a lot of files with 
unusual extensions or characters such as .$$$ or .OLD might be 
more useful than you'd guess from their names. As long as you 
have the space, it's usually advisable to keep anything that 
holds any promise of being useful later.  Files no one but an 
expert should erase include all old AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS, 
WIN.INI and SYSTEM.INI files.  These old duplicates often have 
cryptic extensions such as WIN.NDW, SYSTEM.SYD, CONFIG.$$$ or 
AUTOEXEC.UMB.  They take up very little space, and could provide 
a technician with a valuable paper trail for diagnosing software 
conflicts at some time in the future.
One last measure to insure against disaster


Finally, remember to wait a week or two before running DEFRAG, 
SDEFRAG, SPEEDISK or any other hard disk optimization program 
once you've finished pruning.  If you've erased a needed file, 
you may still be able to get it back using an undelete utility.
  
  
Delete protection
How to reclaim your own trash


Delete protection can be a lifesaver.  There's nothing worse than 
sitting down at your computer and discovering that a file you 
erased last week is critical to a job you need done today.  It's 
such a common problem that dozens of delete-protection schemes 
have been created for the commercial and shareware/freeware 
market, and virtually every operating system on the market today 
comes with delete protection software.  Unfortunately, you don't 
usually get this protection until you specifically ask the 
software to provide it.
     The Windows undelete programs included with recent DOS 
versions and all-purpose utility packages can easily be 
configured to preserve both deleted files and directories from 
premature loss.  MS-DOS' undelete is considerably less versatile 
and doesn't allow for undeleting directories.  Consult the manual 
for your DOS or utility package for details on configuring delete 
protection, or try configuring it yourself by double-clicking on 
an undelete application icon.


If you have a recent DOS plus a multi-utility package such as 
Norton Utilities, Norton Desktop or PCTools on the same computer, 
it's important to install only one delete-protection program.  
Accidentally configuring a second delete protector could have 
unexpected results, such as flooding your hard disk with useless 
data that refuses to be deleted.
Setting up delete protection


Generally speaking, you can set the protection schemes to handle 
file number and directory size limits as large as you like on 
newer systems.  Limits of 1,000 files and up to 50Mb of space for 
the trash directory are not necessarily excessive on a new 1.2Gb 
drive.  Most schemes will automatically "take out the trash" 
after a certain number of days to prevent overloading your system 
with dead data.
     It's usually wise to set the delay on purging or "flushing" 
to at least 30 days, particularly if there are functions or 
programs you only use once a month.  If your hard disk has the 
space and the program lets you do it, you might want to set the 
delay as long as a year.


You can often successfully recover deleted files without 
installing delete protection, but full-time protection offers a 
much wider margin of safety because it actually preserves an 
exact copy of the original file.  This level of protection is 
virtually a necessity in homes where both parents and children 
use the same computer.
  
  
Reclaiming DOS memory
Still stuck in the DOS trap


Windows 95 and OS/2 Warp both come with nifty updates to DOS that 
make significant improvements in the amount of memory available 
and the way your computer handles it.  Nowhere is this more 
important than when it comes to good, clean (or dirty) 
fun...games.  The high-speed, high-resolution graphics and sound 
in today's games consume enormous amounts of processor speed and 
system memory, and all too often stress your system beyond its 
limits.
     Most of us are still stuck with a stand-alone DOS and 
Windows 3.1/3.11.  There's nothing worse than getting your new 
game home and finding out that it won't run until you find a way 
to clear another 75 kilobytes of DOS memory or create one of 
those dreaded boot disks.
     It's not much easier when you use your computer for a 
living.  There always seems to be one essential program that 
insists on EMS and plays havoc your carefully-optimized DOS setup 
by chewing up a whopping 64k of precious upper memory for the EMS 
page frame.
Making use of what you have


Fortunately you can work around these problems quite easily with 
virtually all DOS packages released in the last two years.
     The easiest way to handle most "out of memory" problems is 
with a garden-variety "clean boot", a boot configuration which 
loads nothing but DOS and allows the game full access to all the 
memory your system has available.  You clean-boot DOS by pressing 
the F5 key within two seconds after seeing the "Starting DOS..." 
message displayed onscreen at boot-up.
     Sometimes a program will insist on HIMEM.SYS and nothing 
else.  No problem...well, not much of one.  Another recent 
feature is called "interactive boot".  Pressing the F8 key when 
you see the "Starting DOS..." message will cause DOS to ask you 
for confirmation of every command in the boot process.


This can be a royal pain in the backside with the average 
multimedia setup, but it doesn't need to be.  HIMEM.SYS is 
usually the first command executed, so you can simply press "Y" 
to load that particular driver and then press and hold the "N" 
key, quickly bypassing all other boot commands, until the C:\>_ 
prompt appears, and backspace out the leftover "N"s at the 
command prompt.
EMS on demand


Handling the occasional need for EMS memory is a bit trickier, 
but still a lot less trouble than it used to be.  The new DOS' 
now allow you to select or reject an individual driver or command 
at boot-up with the simple addition of a question mark in the 
command.  
     First you'll need to load CONFIG.SYS into Windows' Notepad 
or a text editor.  Next you create a duplicate copy of your 
EMM386.EXE statement (the line that begins DEVICE=C:\WINDOWS[or 
DOS]\EMM386.EXE) on the line directly below the original command.  
Next you change both copies so that they each have question marks 
and one allows for EMS memory while the other does not.  If your 
original statement looked like this:
DEVICE=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE NOEMS 
....your new setup would have two statements that look like this:
DEVICE?=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE NOEMS
DEVICE?=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE RAM
     The first command provides upper memory, no EMS, and up to 
64k more DOS memory.  The second command gives you access to EMS 
when you need it.


The next time you boot DOS, it will ask you with a [Y,N]? prompt 
whether to execute the particular command.  Simply type "Y" after 
the one you want and "N" after the one you don't want.  
Presto...EMS on demand.
     Be sure to check your DOS manual before making these 
changes.  Different brands of DOS may want the question mark 
placed at a different location in the command.
Custom boot menus: hackers' heaven, novice hell
If these relatively simple solutions doesn't satisfy you, you can 
always take an evening or two and learn the wonderful intricacies 
of custom configuration menu programming.  Beginning with the 
most recent DOS versions, you can now tailor several completely 
different DOS boot setups and select them individually from a 
push-button list each time you boot.  Be sure to have an 
emergency boot disk handy with copies of your original 
AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS files before tackling this job.  If 
this is your first stab at programming, you're almost guaranteed 
to need this protection at least once before you get the job 
right.
     The biggest drawback to custom DOS boot menus?  Your next 
operating system upgrade will probably handle memory problems 
well enough to make most of your programming skills obsolete.
     The second-biggest drawback?  Once you get used to 
programming boot menus, hacking these menus often becomes more 
fun than using the programs the menus were programmed to 
accommodate.
  
  
Better sound without better speakers
What your retailer won't tell you


Want better sound from your multimedia kit but don't want to pay 
for special speakers for your PC?  If you have a stereo system is 
in the same room, you should be able to make its speakers and 
amplifier do double-duty.  All you need is a special cable that 
connects from the LINE OUT jacks of the sound card to the AUX IN 
jacks on your stereo receiver.  Ask at your home entertainment 
accessory dealer for a 1/8" stereo male to RCA stereo male 
adapter cable.
     These cables are usually three feet or shorter, not nearly 
enough to reach from the average CPU to the average bookshelf 
stereo receiver.  If their in-stock unit is not long enough, a 
walkie-style headphone extension cable will probably give you the 
length you need.


Most experts caution against using regular stereo speakers, which 
are usually unshielded (meaning they will emit some 
electromagnetic interference when you use them), as multimedia 
speakers for your computer.  The argument is that speaker magnets 
play havoc with hard disks and floppy disks and could also 
interfere with the operation of the computer's circuitry.  
They're right on both counts.  But if you have a quality sound 
system in the same room as your computer, it's likely that the 
speakers are at least four feet from your CPU and that you 
already play your stereo at times when you use your computer.  At 
that distance your data and circuitry should be safe from all but 
the most monstrous sub-woofer magnets.
Two minor cautions


This setup shouldn't cause problems as long as the speakers are 
kept well clear of the computer and any cables connecting your 
peripheral accessories, and you don't accidentally set your 
floppies down too close to the speaker enclosures.  The 
combination of a real stereo amplifier and quality speakers 
should give you a quality of multimedia sound you'll find much 
more pleasing to both the ears and the pocketbook than dedicated 
multimedia speakers. 
     This warning is more for your esthetic sense than your 
equipment: jacking a cheap sound card into a quality stereo 
system, or even a good set of headphones, will make any 
deficiencies in the card glaringly obvious.
  
  
Two timeless Windows tips
Permanently personalizing Program Manager


Here are three very basic Windows tricks known to almost every 
veteran user which never fail to delight and amaze new users, 
particularly those who avoid manuals like the plague, which is 
most of us.
     Tired of having the look of your Program Manager change on 
you every time you boot your computer?  If more than one person 
has access to your computer, you are probably faced with an 
ever-changing icon layout.  It can be especially irritating if 
you have to hunt for the icons for your most-used programs 
because they keep changing position on you.
     There's a simple solution for the problem.  Start by 
disabling Save Settings on Exit  from Program Manager's Options 
menu..  Next, arrange group windows and icons in the manner that 
appeals to you.  Now click on File and then click Exit -- and 
here's the big secret -- while at the same time holding down the 
Shift key.  You'll see the hourglass flash for a moment, but 
Program Manager won't kick you out of Windows.  Instead, 
"Shift"-Exit saves your current desktop to disk.  The next time 
you start Windows, your Program Manager will look exactly as you 
saw it when it was saved.
     Finally, to make sure it stays that way, tell no one who 
might mess with your handiwork how you did this.
DOS in a window


Another surprise to novice Windows users is that most DOS 
programs that don't use graphics (text-only) can run either as a 
window or covering the full screen, allowing for cut-and-paste of 
text and viewing of other windows while working in the DOS 
program.  Some DOS programs don't allow it, most notably 
WordPerfect, but in most cases holding down the Alt key and 
pressing Enter (Alt+Enter) will convert a full-screen DOS program 
to a windowed program with smaller screen text and more intuitive 
access to the rest of Windows.
Okay, let's make it three...


Once you become handy enough with Windows to want to hacker -- or 
at least study -- your configuration files, there's a secret 
utility you'll find lurking in the SYSTEM directory of Windows 
called SYSEDIT.EXE that you'll probably find very handy.  It 
isn't normally installed into the Program Manager setup of 
Windows 3.1/3.11, perhaps to keep novices from inadvertently 
messing up their systems.  That means you'll have to dig it out 
and install it yourself.
     System Configuration Editor is a quick, slick hybrid version 
of Notepad which loads AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS, WIN.INI and 
SYSTEM.INI (others as well depending on the version of Windows), 
into separate windows in the same program for easy 
cross-referencing and editing.  Windows 95 includes this utility 
too...and no, you can't get it to load into your Start menu 
unless you do it manually.
     If it is available on your version of Windows, System 
Configuration Editor is available as an option from the main menu 
of F-A-S-T Emergency Windows Backup if you cannot find it on your 
system.
....and one for DOS


If you ever get a hankering to hacker DOS (and despite the dire 
predictions, there will be benefits from doing so for many years 
yet), you might not know that literally hundreds of obscure 
features have been added to the DOS utilities over the years that 
your manual may never mention and the HELP menu won't even hint 
at.  You can uncover these switches, options and built-in help 
screens by using the /? parameter with most .EXE and .COM files 
in the DOS directory.  Try typing SMARTDRV /? at the DOS prompt 
for a potentially rewarding taste of what you can find with just 
one DOS program.
  
  
If DOS won't verify your data, who will?
The risk you don't hear about
One of the dirtiest secrets about DOS is that it doesn't check 
the integrity of your data while writing it to either your hard 
disk or a floppy disk unless you specifically ask it to.  It's a 
secret because in most cases you don't need to know.  It's a 
dirty secret because by the time you find this out, you usually 
wish someone had told you about it sooner.
     The reasoning behind this decision was fairly sound.  Hard 
disks are generally pretty reliable, and disk reads and writes 
have always been the most time-consuming aspect of computing.  If 
DOS has to make a second pass on every bit of data written to a 
hard disk or floppy disk to insure that data was recorded 
accurately, it increases the time taken for disk writes by as 
much as 60 percent.  Normally you'll only want verification on 
the occasions when you're writing to a floppy disk.  Even then 
some experts say the risk is negligible.
     Others say it's serious enough to warrant using verification 
all the time.  Longtime users all seem to come around eventually 
to the notion that one should never trust no-name floppy disks, 
even new ones, and after a year or two not even brand-name 
floppies should be trusted to be accurate.  Even high-quality 
floppy disks develop errors at rates as high as ten percent per 
year.  Hard disks are much more reliable, but some technicians 
consider any hard disk to be a high-risk candidate for physical 
defects after three years of regular use.
It's ten o'clock.  Do you know where your data is?
If you frequently need to copy data to floppy disks, it's a good 
idea to have verification turned on at least temporarily until 
you're sure data has been properly stored.  If you're running an 
old XT, 286 or 386 and you're concerned about the security of 
your hard disk's data, it might be wise to have verification on 
all the time.
     Permanently changing DOS' write verification to ON a simple 
task.  All you do is open Notepad or a text editor, load in your 
AUTOEXEC.BAT file from the C:\ directory, and add a line of text 
reading VERIFY ON to the top of the file, making it the first 
command.  You can also turn verification on and off at will from 
the C:\> prompt by typing VERIFY ON or VERIFY OFF and pressing 
Enter, and it's a good idea to do so when writing to a floppy 
disk.  Unfortunately, you can't do this from Windows unless you 
open a DOS window first or have a Windows program which provides 
this feature for you.
     If all you want to verify is your backup disks, check to see 
if your backup software has a verification switch built into it 
before adding permanent VERIFY ON to your configuration.


You can make the verification switch simpler and available from 
both DOS and Windows by typing these two DOS commands:
echo VERIFY ON>c:\dos\on.bat
echo VERIFY OFF>c:\dos\off.bat
Configuring write verification in Windows


Once you have executed these commands, they will create two small 
batch programs which will allow you to quickly turn verification 
on or off from DOS simply by typing ON or OFF and pressing Enter, 
and from Windows by using the Run command in File Manager or 
Program Manager and typing ON of
OFF in the Command Line: box.  It's rare, but possible, that 
these commands will conflict with a normal DOS/Windows setup, but 
it's unlikely you have software on your system that uses an ON or 
OFF command directly from DOS or Program Manager.


Turning on verification before copying files to a floppy disk is 
a good habit to adopt at any time.  It's also devilishly 
difficult to remember if you've been copying without a safety net 
for several years.
    
Transferring old data to new computers
New life for your old work


You might have data on disks from a stone-age computer which 
you've been told cannot be recovered or moved to your 
IBM-compatible.  Perhaps the files were created on an old 
Franklin, Tandy Color Computer, Apple II or Commodore 64, or use 
one of the very early DOS formats which are no longer readable on 
new computers without special drives.  These files can probably 
be recovered more easily than you think, particularly if it's 
just text that you want.
     There are free and shareware programs available from 
shareware CDs, bulletin boards and flea markets which will allow 
you to read all these data types and probably others as well.  
The easiest way to tackle the job is to find a local hobbyist 
with the type of computer the disks came from who also has a 
modem.  The files can then loaded onto their computer and emailed 
back to you in a form you can handle, avoiding the problem of 
incompatible disk formats; or transferred directly from one 
computer type to another through a modem connection or null modem 
cable.


If this sounds too technical, don't worry.  Anyone who has the 
gear will probably know how to do the job, and you can bank on 
data transfer rates charged by a hobbyist to be a fraction of 
what commercial firms charge for the same job.
If in doubt, fake it


There are even programs, which can literally turn newer computers 
into copies of dinosaur CP/M, CoCo II/Dragon, Amiga 500, C-64, 
Atari XE, Adam, Apple II, TI-99/4A computers and many others as 
well.  This allows you not only to have your old data on your new 
IBM-compatible, but to run your old programs too.
     These "emulator" programs are rarely perfect, and their cost 
usually reflects their quality.  Many of them are freebies that 
were released after the developer got tired of trying to perfect 
the software, and in this stage they're often little more than 
highly ingenious "toys".  The emulator you need may not allow 
your IBM-compatible to read disks created by your old system, and 
may not run the program you most need it to run.  But when they 
do work they usually run at a reasonable speed and may allow you 
to use old software until you can find an inexpensive way to 
convert your data to a more recent and compatible format.
New life for old floppies


Dealing with single-sided IBM-compatible floppies and other 
strange formats isn't nearly as troublesome.  The same places 
where you'll find the emulator programs should also offer a free 
utility kit from Germany called FDFormat which allows most -- but 
not all -- newer IBM-compatibles to read and write to obsolete or 
unusual PC floppy disk formats.


Be very wary about contracting for data conversion unless you 
have a guarantee that the data will be fully compatible with 
industry-standard formats such as ASCII or DOS text, Lotus 1-2-3 
spreadsheet, or standard database-import formats.  Converting and 
cleaning up an old client database or book manuscript created 
with oddball software on an ancient system could cost hundreds of 
dollars if you're unlucky
enough to have used a little-known software package.
     There are conversion programs for virtually every well-known 
application for virtually any computer made in the last fifteen 
years, but the cost of someone who knows can use this software -- 
and knows where to find it -- may be prohibitive if the data 
isn't very valuable on its own.


Most of the programs suggested here are publicly available for 
free, but there may be a fee charged for the disk on which they 
are provided.  An excellent all-purpose source for most of these 
programs, and virtually any useful utility you might ever need, 
is the SimTel CD-ROM from Walnut Creek.  It's a huge collection 
of 10,000-plus DOS programs updated two or three times a year 
from the most popular Internet repository of non-entertainment 
DOS software.
  
  
Silence is golden, not necessarily deadly
Going fanless: is it worth the risk?


The noise generated by the latest generation of PC's can be a 
serious stressor for sensitive or creative people.  Virtually 
every new desktop computer available today has two cooling fans, 
one for the power supply and another smaller fan for the central 
processing chip.  Low-noise fans are one option, but 
disconnecting the fans permanently will eliminate noise problems 
once and for all, and may be the only viable option for a 
computer used in a quiet workspace.
     Any capable serviceperson can disconnect both fans in less 
than half an hour, but most will strongly advise against it 
because reduced cooling will almost certainly result in early 
chip failure.  Who cares?  After five years the average PC has 
lost at least 80 percent of its retail value, and most 
heat-sensitive components have life expectancies of more than ten 
years in normal use.  A fanless power supply might fail much 
sooner than a fanless CPU chip, possibly inside of a year, but 
once again, who cares?  Few artists or teachers will object to an 
annual $100-$125 power supply replacement for the sake of as much 
as 40dB less background noise in their workspace.
Airing out the guts


Most IBM-compatibles can be effectively cooled without a fan by 
removing unused disk drive bay covers from the front of the case 
and unused card slot flanges and knock-outs from the rear.  Most 
of the power supply's housing can be permanently removed to 
improve ventilation and prolong life.  "Chip fans" can be 
replaced with less efficient, noise-free "heat sinks" for just a 
few dollars.  (Many 486 and Pentium processors behave strangely 
without at least a heat sink.)  Desktop cases can be turned on 
their sides like tower-style cases, and the convection currents 
created by chip heat will take care of the rest.
     Removing the fans will eventually make you painfully aware 
of the noise made by the average hard disk, particularly on older 
XTs and 286s.  Much of it is resonant whine from the drive 
vibrating the computer's metal case; hard disk whine isn't nearly 
as noticeable on the average laptop.  This noise can't be 
eliminated without unbolting the drive and encasing it in a 
Styrofoam block, which makes the drive too hot to be viable.  But 
there's no reason why a home system that never gets moved can't 
have its hard disk unbolted and held up by two small strips of 
foam to allow air to circulate around its housing.  This can 
eliminate up to 80 percent of hard disk noise with almost no 
significant increase in operating temperature.  
Doing it sensibly


Both of these procedures are safe if performed by a competent 
serviceperson, but be aware that they will probably void the 
manufacturer's warranty if you have a fairly new computer.  You 
should also avoid going fanless if you have a fairly high-end 
system, a Pentium rated higher than 60MHz or an older Pentium 
with heat generation problems, or have added a lot of extra cards 
to your system which could be additional heat sources.
     We have heard of some hopped-up systems which ran so hot 
that the case could barely be touched with bare fingertips, and 
obviously such a system needs all the cooling it can get.  Your 
system probably never gets more than slightly warm to the touch.  
So if your serviceperson still insists on a chip fan, ask why 
most notebooks don't include them.  If they insist on a power 
supply fan, ask why the
fanless power supplies on older Macs, Ataris and Amigas last so 
long.
  
  
Surge protectors: no best-before dates here
Stripped power strip?


If you've been using an inexpensive four- or six-outlet power 
strip (power bar) with a built-in surge suppressor as protection 
against power line inconsistencies, you may not be as safe as you 
think.  Surge protectors work by sensing sudden increases in 
power such as those caused by lightning strikes of power lines 
and quickly "clamping" the voltage, or greatly reducing its 
level, faster than it would normally take for a fuse or breaker 
to blow.  When the crisis has passed, it allows normal line-level 
voltage through to the outlets again.  If a surge is sudden 
enough and large enough, it can fry electronic components before 
fuses or breakers have a chance to shut off the power.
     The actual surge protection is provided by a round disk the 
size of a quarter, called a varistor, which is soldered inside 
the power block or strip between the outlets and the plug.  It's 
not commonly known that this disk degrades with time and use.  
According to some tests, they have a life expectancy of two years 
at most, and many will fail after the first high-voltage spike 
they receive regardless of their age.
     You can buy replacement varistors for a couple of dollars at 
parts depots such as Radio Shack, but it's usually more trouble 
than it's worth, especially since you can't easily tell whether 
or not the component is reliable.
Yet another disposable product


Brand-new power strips with surge suppressors can be had for as 
little as $4.00, so replacing an old varistor may be pointless 
unless you're conservation-inclined and have no other use for a 
power strip.  Some technicians believe that cheap power strips 
shouldn't be relied upon for surge protection at any time.  At 
best they will only suppress a powerful spike, possibly allowing 
less-powerful but still damaging voltage levels to reach your 
equipment.
     Longer life, solid-state surge suppressors start from $30 
and run as high as $150.  You can purchase units that protect 
phone lines and electrical outlets as well as modems and fax 
machines.  (It's possible for electrical spikes to travel through 
phone lines as well.)  Some manufacturers of commercial grade 
surge protectors, also known as "power conditioners", will even 
warrant your equipment against electrical spike damage while it's 
plugged into their product.
     Power line surges strong enough to damage electronic 
equipment are fairly rare in most urban areas.  In rural locales 
with inconsistent power, or in certain businesses where 
high-voltage power leaks are possible, power conditioning may be 
essential.  If you really need that protection, don't trust your 
electronics investment to anything less than quality solid-state 
surge suppression units.


And if you're particularly health conscious, you can purchase 
conditioners that correct anomalies in the current, reducing the 
level of ELF electromagnetic radiation emitted by the electrical 
cables themselves.  The World Health Organization cautioned us to 
reduce exposure to ELF radiation as far back as 1984.
  
  
Did you know...
....that with an inexpensive adapter plug, you can plug almost any 
IBM-compatible keyboard into your laptop or notebook computer, 
and connect your home system's VGA or SVGA monitor directly into 
it for better look and feel?
....that you can often use inexpensive cables to plug your sound 
card into your stereo system and often save a small fortune on 
high-performance computer speakers?
....that in most Windows programs and functions with lists, 
including Program Manager and the Open and Save boxes, you can 
usually find the file or program you're looking for much more 
quickly by typing its first letter?  It's called command 
completion or file name completion, and more new programs use 
this all the time.
....that adding a second hard disk to your computer might be the 
most time- and cost-effective backup system you can buy?  With 
recent price reductions, a second 500Mb hard disk may be as cheap 
as an internal tape backup unit and a couple of tapes, and will 
back up your data much more quickly.  Not recommended if you work 
in a high-crime area or are at risk to have your computer stolen.
....that you don't need an expensive utility such as LapLink or 
File Shuttle Express to synchronize your notebook and desktop 
computers?  You can buy inexpensive file shuttle cables from most 
dealers which connect two PC's using fairly fast printer port 
connections.  MS-DOS 6.0-6.22 comes with baby network software 
called Interlink which lets you use the second computer's hard 
disk more or less as if it were in your own system, and IBM and 
Novell brands of DOS have their own intelligent file 
synchronization utilities included.  If you're sticking with 
MS-DOS and want something easier than Interlink, ask your 
shareware dealer about two free synchronizer programs, one for 
DOS called ElseWare and one for Windows called SAMESAME.
  

The Virus Awareness Kit


Before continuing with this section, we strongly recommend 
reading two other sections.  The first is our short explanations 
of the exact meanings of virus and trojan, and the second is a 
close look at Computer Virus Myths, recommended if this is a 
subject that really worries you.
    Computer Virus Myths
    Introduction: Flat tires and broken fanbelts
    Viruses, trojans and the Internet
    Trojans: a greater worry than viruses
    A seven-point battle plan
    Backups and antivirus software: minimize your risk of 
     infection
  
Flat tires and broken fanbelts


We like to think of viruses and trojans as the flat tires and 
broken fanbelts on the Information Highway.  They can put a fast 
end to your fun with almost no warning.  But in most cases, the 
problems they cause are completely preventable with a little 
common sense and preparation.  All you need are good, up-to-date 
antivirus software and a regular habit of making thorough backups 
of your most important data.  Most veteran computer enthusiasts 
don't fear infections at all, although they do respect the 
threat.
     It's true that a virus can destroy every bit of data on your 
system, wiping out months or years' worth of work.  But it's also 
true that a flat tire can kill you...if it happens at the wrong 
time and in the wrong place.  A little common sense and 
prevention will go a long way toward insuring that, just like a 
flat tire, even the most destructive viruses will never cause you 
more than a minor inconvenience.
     Yes, you read that correctly.  Even the most destructive 
viruses need never cause you more than a minor inconvenience.  
Ignorance is the root of all fear, and in the case of viruses and 
trojans ignorance has been perpetuated for far too long and hurt 
far too any people.
Virus panic


Virus panic has scared literally thousands of people away from 
the online world.  In fact, the effects of the panic can be worse 
than the infection itself.  Steve Winter, one of the authors of 
this software, became so concerned at the discovery of his first 
infection that he erased several dozen good floppy disks in an 
attempt to stamp it out.  He only discovered later that it was 
just one disk which was infected, and some of the erased software 
was never recovered.
     Virus panic is a damnable shame, because it simply doesn't 
have to happen.  Period.  If you're ready to learn the facts 
about viruses and trojans, put virus panic behind you once and 
for all, and enjoy the mountain of free and free-trial software 
on the Internet, we have two prescriptions which should cure you 
for good if you've been afflicted with this dreaded illness.
The first prescription for sanity


First we recommend browsing the Computer Virus Myths section by 
clicking this highlighted hotspot.  This piece, created by two 
experts on viruses and released to the computing world as a 
public service, is one of the sanest and most informative 
introductions to computer viruses and virus panic that we've ever 
seen.  It contains a lot of information you might not care about, 
so feel free to browse only the sections of interest to you.
The second prescription


Secondly, pay close attention to the sections on backups and 
antivirus software.  They are your best line of defense against 
all kinds of damage to your data.
 
  
How safe is the Internet?


The average Internet user will be lucky (or unlucky, depending on 
your point of view) if they ever see a virus.  You can't get 
viruses from email, and any trojan contained in an email message 
will look like garbage and be trashed instantly anyhow.  You 
can't get viruses from browsing pages on the Web, not yet at 
least, so Netscape, Mosaic and other such programs are quite 
safe.  You can't get viruses from USENET newsgroups unless you 
are actively taking software, not just text messages, from these 
newsgroups.  In other words, nearly all of the sights, sounds and 
especially the text documents are as close to being completely 
safe as you could expect.
     The reason these things are so safe is because anyone 
spotting this nastiness is likely to go well out of their way to 
stamp it out in a big hurry.  Trojans spread using text, sound 
and pictures have been rare and generally confined to very small 
groups.  But that's not to say that nasty things can't be stowed 
away in pictures, sounds and text.
     The real risk comes with obtaining programs from the 
Internet, because a program is by far the easiest thing for a 
virus to infect.  Even then, if you're even moderately cautious, 
you might spend every hour of every day for a year surfing the 
net and never stumble upon a single virus.
Play safe, play sensibly


As with all things in life, you're as safe as you make yourself.  
It's just that simple.  If you take care of your body, you won't 
get sick nearly as often.  If you take care of your software, it 
won't get sick as often either.  But just as you can't completely 
protect yourself against colds and flu, you can't completely 
protect against viruses and trojans.  It's possible -- extremely 
unlikely, but possible -- that every copy of Windows ever created 
contains a trojan planted by a disgruntled ex-Microsoft 
programmer which will destroy data on every hard disk where it is 
installed on August 24, 1998 at 12:00 p.m., and no one might know 
about it.
     It's also possible that you could be hit by a meteorite as 
you sit and read this.  The odds on either of these two 
occurrences are extremely low.
     So the choice is yours: you can play safe and sensibly, use 
preventative measures and endure the relatively low risk for the 
enormous potential rewards of the net, or you can hide.
The ultimate fun-killer


Nothing takes the fun out of getting new software from the 
Internet like the fear of a virus infection.  Fortunately, your 
risk of infection from popular sites on the net is very small.  
How often have you heard of major infections from the Internet 
lately?  Not often, we'll bet.  If this was a common occurrence 
and a lot of people were being hurt by it, you'd better believe 
that the media would never shut up about it.  You might remember 
the media hubbub over Michelangelo and the Internet worm.  A 
serious destructive virus outbreak on the net would have the 
tabloid news programs talking about it for weeks and the 
government making even louder noises about regulation.
     In fact, this type of reaction is precisely what happened 
with the infamous Michelangelo virus, which was designed to 
activate on a specific date.  Tens of thousands of computers 
suffered data loss because the virus was only discovered a few -- 
too few -- days before it was set to go off.  Servicepeople still 
get calls every year on March 6 when it "goes off" from 
distressed users who have
lost the use of their computers.  We still know of companies that 
refuse to turn on their computers every March 6th for fear of a 
fresh outbreak, which is a reaction born of ignorance.
     Alas, even though people still get nailed every year  by 
Michelangelo it's just not news any more.  Virus outbreaks on the 
Internet, though...now there's a headline writer's dream.  If it 
was a serious problem, you'd know about it.
Viruses and trojans: no more than a minor annoyance


The risk of being infected by new DOS and Windows programs you 
find on the net is nothing more than a minor annoyance if you 
take the precaution of making regular backups of your important 
data.  You can access the guide to backups from the PC Owner's 
Survival Guide main menu, and if you're still worried after 
browsing it we strongly recommended that you read the Computer 
Virus Myths section if you have not already done so.  The sober, 
reasoned statements and sound advice offered there by Messrs. 
Rosenberger and Greenberg should calm most of your fears.
Never underestimate the cleverness of virus writers


On the other hand, never forget that virus programmers are smart 
people.  They will test every antivirus program on the market to 
make sure that their new creation won't get noticed.  No one, and 
we mean no one, can honestly promise 100 percent protection from 
viruses and trojans.  Viruses have appeared in shrink-wrapped 
packages containing some of the most popular programs in the 
world.  Even the major publishers get embarrassed from time to 
time by infections that escape their detection.


This point gets a double growl.  It's not well-known to most 
intermediate-level users that one of the most common methods of 
spreading viruses is to infect an antivirus program.  
Fortunately, most Internet sites, online services and private 
bulletin boards are rigorously checked by the administrators.
Non-UNIX users are well-protected from Internet viruses and 
trojans


As a Windows/DOS user, you are protected from most of the serious 
destructive programs spread over the net.  When virus programmers 
spread their destruction on the net, their target is usually the 
UNIX-based systems that do most of the Internet's grunt labor.
     There has never been a known UNIX virus which could harm an 
IBM-compatible that was running DOS and/or Windows.
     Let that sink in.  A virus that infects your Internet 
provider is unlikely to cause you any more harm than a day or two 
of lost email and a short wait while they clean up their own 
mess.
 
  
Trojans: a greater worry than viruses
A much higher rate of destructiveness


Trojans are actually a much greater concern than viruses.  A 
trojan horse is a piece of destructive program code that hides 
out in an otherwise harmless-looking file.  Trojans don't usually 
spread themselves (they depend on you and I to spread them 
around), so they have a very short lifespan in the computing 
world.  But unlike viruses, which can be relatively harmless, 
trojans are almost always highly destructive.
     In fact, as a  Windows user, trojans are virtually the only 
method viruses have of infecting your system via the Internet.  A 
virus can't infect your software until you run a piece of 
software that spreads the infection, and in order to run the 
software, you have to get it from some other location.  Unless 
your Internet connection is a true network connection, meaning 
that your disk drives are shared with the rest of the Internet, 
you can't be infected by activating a program on someone else's 
system.  You can only do it by downloading that program to your 
computer and running it from there.
     A trojan horse can be anything from a small utility that 
reformats your hard disk instead of tuning it as promised to 
something so clever and sophisticated that it might paint obscene 
messages on your computer-generated artwork.  Trojans are much 
easier to create than viruses (we could create a trojan in ten 
seconds from a standing start, but we have no idea how to program 
a virus) and trojans often escape the detection of antivirus 
programs until they are reported to the antivirus' author.


The best protection against trojans is the exact same protection 
you use against viruses: regular, well-planned backups and common 
sense.
 
  
Steps you can take to minimize the risk


This is war -- guerrilla war -- and no war can be easily won 
without a battle plan.  Here are the steps we recommend to 
protect yourself against possible infection not just on the 
Internet, but in all your computing.
    A seven-point battle plan
    An important primer on backups
    Antivirus software: which to choose?  
A seven-point battle plan
 1.  Have the latest version of a virus-checking program, such as 
McAfee's SCAN.EXE or F-Prot's VIRSTOP.EXE running on your machine 
at all times by adding its name and path to your AUTOEXEC.BAT or 
CONFIG.SYS file so that it runs every time you start your 
computer.  Good antivirus software is widely available on the 
Internet, and some of it is free for personal non-commercial use.
 2.  Exercise extreme caution when attempting to use new software 
posted to the alt.binaries newsgroups.  This software often 
cannot be checked before it is cleared for public consumption, 
and viruses and trojans are quite common.  If you don't trust 
your virus protection software, we recommend waiting 48 hours 
before running any new program found in one of these newsgroups, 
and then checking the newsgroup to find out about any virus 
warnings.  If someone was infected by a publicly-posted binary 
file, you can be sure you'll see a message about it.
 3.  Stay away from "pirate" newsgroups.  Any newsgroup with 
warez in its name is, believe it or not, specifically set up for 
the illegal exchange of software, and your provider might have 
these newsgroups available on their server.  These groups are 
known for sloppiness and dirty tricks tactics, and viruses and 
trojans are very common among the posted software.  Experienced 
users of these newsgroups consider this risk to be part of the 
price they pay for access to free commercial software.  In fact, 
we know of one pirates' newsgroup where you can expect to find at 
least one infected file every week.
 4.  Never ever run any program that looks "too good to be true" 
without having it checked out by an expert first, or at least 
waiting for an expert's opinion.  A prime example occurred in 
mid-July 1995 when a program was posted to several alt.binaries 
newsgroups which was supposed to allow older 80486 
microprocessors to emulate the functions of the newer, faster 
Pentium.  In reality this was a program that formatted your hard 
disk without asking.
 5.  If you haven't already done so, create a "rescue disk".  If 
you have Norton Utilities, PCTools or another full-featured disk 
utility package, one of the programs included will probably be 
able to back up critical information about your hard disk and 
system which could be corrupted by one of the more common 
viruses.  If you don't have such a package, you can make a rescue 
disk using the ThunderByte antivirus package described in the 
section on antivirus software, but be sure to follow the 
instructions for creating this disk carefully.
 6.  Have your virus scanner check every new program you install 
on your computer that does not come from a site you trust.  
People's personal home pages might offer links to software 
located on obscure FTP sites where software is not checked for 
safety and integrity before it is made available to you.
 7.  Never FTP files from a site's /incoming/ directory.  These 
files have not been cleared by the site's administrator and could 
contain anything, from a harmless damaged file to a trojan that 
damages your video card.

Before browsing the topic on backups you might want to create a 
bookmark for this section so you can easily find your way back.  
The backups section is fairly long and found in the PC Owner's 
Survival Kit which is a separate module.
Click the bar below to browse the section on backups; click 
anywhere else to resume.

  
Antivirus software


Good antivirus software is just as important to your peace of 
mind as good backup habits, and it's critical that you know 
exactly what your antivirus software can and can't do.  In most 
cases, people who believe they're safe don't have nearly the 
protection they think they have.  Here's how to insure that your 
protection ranks with that of the most knowledgeable users.
    Problems with antivirus software
    Our picks of the best: all available free or for free trial
    The importance of being new and improved
  
Problems with antivirus software
Chinks in the armor


Antivirus software has been spotty since it first appeared on the 
market.  It's no secret among veteran computer enthusiasts that 
antivirus programs all seem to have holes in them.  They just 
plain miss some viruses.


Others scare people to death with false positive readings 
(reports of potential virus activity where there is no 
infection).  Some report so many false positives or "potential 
viruses" which are actually safe files that one consultant we 
know used five different antivirus programs and made it a habit 
of ruling out virus infection unless two or more gave a positive 
diagnosis.  Problems with your hard disk, a missing file or stray 
byte of information, an old virus scanner, and even installing a 
clean update to a good piece of software can all produce false 
positive readings in some programs.
     Fortunately most authors of antivirus software keep 
extensive records of data types that produce false positive 
readings and attempt to minimize their frequency or warn you 
about them when you perform a virus scan.
False negative readings: another serious problem


Unfortunately, false negative readings can be equally common, and 
they ought to concern you.  There's nothing worse than being told 
you are safe and later discovering that your hard disk was a 
disaster waiting to happen.
     The most common cause of false negative readings is old 
antivirus software.  The antivirus that came with your Norton 
Utilities or DOS package was obsolete months or even years ago 
and won't detect the newer "strains," or variations of existing 
viruses created by mischievous programmers.  It's nice to have 
this older software as a second line of defence, but we don't 
recommend relying on it as your primary method of detecting 
infections.
What to look for in antivirus software


Selecting antivirus software is a fairly easy chore.  There are 
few "bad" antivirus'.  One thing you might want to watch for 
though is "special purpose" antivirus software designed to detect 
or kill only certain types of viruses or trojans.  Monkey virus 
was extremely common in Vancouver in 1994 and 1995, and many 
people relied on a program called KILLMONK.EXE to detect and 
remove it.  Unfortunately, some of those people also used it as 
their first line of defense against all viruses and trojans, and 
sadly some paid the price for using such a limited tool.
     In other words, you need antivirus software that detects a 
wide range of viruses.


We don't recommend any virus software that can't be regularly 
updated by the user.  If you plan on sharing programs and files 
with others on the net, or participating in the binaries 
newsgroups, it's important to:
    a) keep your virus software up-to-date, and
    b) if you can possibly arrange it, keep two different virus 
  programs active in your system at all
  times.  Most quality antivirus programs include 
  behind-the-scenes monitoring modules that pick up any strange 
  behavior and check that behavior with a database of virus 
  "signatures".
 
  
Three free or low-cost antivirus packages
     It seems everyone has their favorite virus program.  New 
contenders appear on the market every few months.  Our favorites 
are the ThunderByte and F-Prot programs.  We're suckers for ease 
of use, and while these two are primarily DOS programs, they're 
as simple to use as anything we've seen.  Try Web searches using 
the names of these programs to find copies of the most recent 
versions on the Internet.
 LATE NOTE: ThunderByte was reported missing in action Dec. 
31/95; we've left the links intact in case this is a temporary 
problem.  At presstime we were unable to download or locate the 
software on the Internet.
     McAfee, Norton and Central Point are also good 
choices...provided you have the latest updates.  ThunderByte, 
F-Prot and McAfee are all widely available on the net, and F-Prot 
is free for non-commercial users.  If you have an active Internet 
account and the Tourist Class or Business Class version of First 
Train, you'll find point-and-click links where you can instantly 
obtain up-to-date versions of all three packages from the Virus 
Prevention Page of First Train online.
F-Prot


Our first choice for antivirus is a program called F-Prot, 
developed in Iceland by Fridrik Skulason.  It is one of the 
easiest antivirus' to use and also one of the most thorough.  
It's a DOS program that can also be run from Windows and Windows 
95, and best of all it's free to private non-commercial users.  
(It's also very cheap for commercial users, with licenses as low 
as one dollar per computer, and free updates four times a year.)
     It's not quite as easy to use as the antivirus included with 
your DOS, but this version will be more recent and worth the time 
to learn if you plan on downloading files from USENET newsgroups 
or making a fair bit of use of anonymoust FTP.
ThunderByte


Our second choice is ThunderByte, an antivirus program from the 
Netherlands which is exceptionally fast and versatile.  
Unfortunately it will take a little more time to learn to use 
this program than it will to learn F-Prot.  This too is a DOS 
program.  TBAV (tee-bav), as it's known to the online world, also 
has a Windows interface if you'd prefer a simpler, more familiar 
layout, which is available from the second set of buttons.  The 
two do not come in the same package.  ThunderByte is shareware, 
and it has a commercial counterpart called Look which uses the 
same ultra-fast detection "engine".  TBAV is probably the scanner 
of choice for those who demand raw speed in an antivirus.
McAfee Scan and Clean


Our third choice is McAfee's excellent set of virus utilities.  
These have been considered the standard in North America for 
several years now.  You should find TBAV and F-Prot to be quite 
sufficient for most needs, but McAfee comes with its own built-in 
Windows shell program.
     Windows 95 versions of Scan and Clean are also available 
now, but be aware that many users have reported possible 
conflicts with Windows 95's operating system.  These problems 
will probably be
fixed by the time you read this.
 
  
The importance of being new and improved
Antivirus software: less valuable with age


It's critical for your own safety that you keep your antivirus 
software constantly updated with the latest  and cleaning 
options.  New strains, variations and families of viruses and 
trojans appear all the time, and your antivirus should tell you 
when it is outdated.  Most antivirus' flash a warning at you if 
the software is more than three months older than the date used 
by your system clock.
     At this time we know of only one program which will reliably 
identify viruses which have not yet been created, a shareware 
program called Invircible which is not yet supported by First 
Train for the Internet and is not covered in this guide.  Sure 
enough, some adventurous cracker will eventually break through 
its protection.  The moral?  Don't depend on any single program.
Updating shareware antivirus'
     Antivirus updates are so important that they are routinely 
posted for IBM-compatible users on or about the day of release to 
the comp.binaries.ibm.pc newsgroup as uuencoded binaries.  Just 
so you know, the moderators of this group are ruthless about 
checking for viruses on software posted to comp.binaries 
newsgroups...it's the alt.binaries newsgroups you need to watch 
out for.
Updating NAV, CPAV, MSAV, IBM Antivirus and others


If you have the full commercial version of Norton Antivirus, 
Central Point Antivirus, Microsoft Antivirus, IBM Antivirus, or 
any other popular antivirus, and it is not a trial or junior 
version included as part of another package, the price you paid 
for the software probably includes free access to updates for at 
least a year.
     The antivirus' manual or on-disk documentation should 
include FTP locations or URLs for acquiring the latest updates.  
The signature file, the database of virus and trojan information 
the software uses to tell good data from bad, needs to be updated 
as new viruses are created and unleashed on the public.  Every 
popular antivirus publisher has a site on the Internet where you 
can obtain the latest version of their program or signature file, 
or information on how to obtain it if these updates require 
advance payment.


If your antivirus of choice was included with your computer or 
with your DOS or Windows software, or was included as an added 
extra in another software package, you are probably not entitled 
to receive free updates.
Don't change your clock as protection from viruses


A very common -- and very effective -- trick for avoiding 
problems with some destructive viruses set to "go off" on a 
certain day, is to set your system date back a week or two.  But 
if you plan on being a participant on the net and not just a 
consumer, don't do it!  Not unless you can remember to set your 
clock properly every time you log onto the net.
     Once you're on the net, your email and newsgroup postings 
are usually "time-stamped" according to the time and date on your 
computer's system clock.  If your clock is set a week behind, 
your newsgroup posts may not be allowed by the server.  Even if 
they are, they may wind up buried so
deeply in the newsgroup that no one ever reads them.
     Don't allow your system clock to get more than a few hours 
out of sync with the correct local time, or you may have problems 
getting the server to accept your postings or messages.  Even if 
you can get your postings through they may be buried several days 
deep in others' databases and never get read.


There's another reason not to mess with your system clock.  
Antivirus software will usually warn you when it is due to be 
updated.  If your system clock is set a year behind, you may not 
get those warnings.  Fortunately most antivirus' are smart enough 
to recognize a system clock set too far ahead or behind and will 
warn you about changing it.
 

The Computer Virus Myths File
(10th Edition: October 4, 1993)
by Rob Rosenberger with Ross M. Greenberg


This document, included here as part of your pre-travel medical 
package, is one of the finest myth-busting articles we've ever 
seen.  With the kind permission of the authors, we present it to 
you in its entirely.
 Note: Some of this material addresses rather technical myths 
held by computer enthusiasts who have more buzzwords than 
experience.  You'll find this section much easier reading if you 
stick with the specific concerns you have about viruses.  Click 
the topics in order to view the sections of this article.
    Introduction
    Definitions
    Contents: 21 Computer Virus Myths
    How to protect yourself
    About the authors


  
Computer Virus Myths


Now you know the differences between a bug and a Trojan horse and 
a virus.  Let's get into some of the myths.  Click the title for 
an explanation of each of these myths:
    All purposely destructive code spreads like a virus.
    Viruses and Trojan horses are a recent phenomenon.
    Viruses are written by teenage hackers.
    Viruses infect 25% of all IBM PCs every month.
    Only 500 different viruses?  But most experts talk about them 
     in the thousands.
    A virus could destroy all the files on my disks.
    Viruses have been documented on over 300,000 computers 
     (1988).
    Viruses can hide inside a data file.
    Some viruses can completely hide themselves from all 
     antivirus software, making them truly undetectable.
    BBSs and shareware programs spread viruses.
    My computer could be infected if I call an infected BBS.
    So-called `boot sector' viruses travel primarily in software 
     downloaded from BBSs.
    My files are damaged, so it must have been a virus attack.
    Donald Burleson was convicted of releasing a virus.
    Robert Morris Jr.  released a benign virus on a defense 
     network.
    The U.S. government planted a virus in Iraqi military 
     computers during the Gulf War.
    Viruses can spread to all sorts of computers.
    My backups will be worthless if I back up a virus.
    Antivirus software will protect me from viruses.
    Read-only files are safe from virus infections.
    Viruses can infect files on write-protected floppy disks.

A number of myths have surfaced about the threat of computer 
viruses.  There are myths about how widespread they are, how 
dangerous they are, and even myths about what a computer virus 
really is.  We want you to know the facts.
The first thing you need to learn is that a computer virus falls 
in the realm of malicious programming techniques known as Trojan 
horses.  All viruses are Trojan horses, but relatively few Trojan 
horses can be called a virus.
That having been said, it's time to go over the terminology we 
use when we lecture.Wrong.  Remember, Trojan horse describes purposely
destructive 
code in general.  Very few Trojan horses actually qualify as 
viruses.  Newspaper magazine reporters tend to call almost 
anything a virus because they often have no real understanding of 
computer crime.
Trojan horses have existed since the first days of the computer; 
hackers toyed with viruses in the early 1960s as a form of 
amusement.  Many different Trojan horse techniques have emerged 
over the decades to embezzle money, destroy data, fool investors, 
etc.  The general public really didn't know of this problem until 
the IBM PC revolution brought it into the spotlight.  Banks still 
hush up computerized embezzlements to this day because they 
believe customers will lose faith in them if word gets out.
Yes, hackers have unleashed viruses -- but so has a computer 
magazine publisher.  And according to one trusted military 
publication, the U.S. Defense Department creates computer viruses 
for use as weapons.  Trojan horses for many decades sprang from 
the minds of middle-aged men; computer prices have only recently 
dropped to a level where teenagers could get into the act.  We 
call people wormers when they abuse their knowledge of computers.
You shouldn't fear hackers just because some of them know how to 
write viruses.  This whole thing boils down to an ethics issue, 
not a technology issue.  Hackers know a lot about computers; 
wormers abuse their knowledge.  Hackers as a whole got a bum rap 
when the mass media corrupted the term.
If 25% suffer an infection every month, then 100% would have a 
virus every four months -- in other words, every IBM PC would 
suffer an infection three times per year.  This mythical estimate 
surfaced in the media after researcher Peter Tippett wrote a 
complex thesis on how viruses might spread in the future.
Computer viruses exist all over the planet, yes -- but they won't 
take over the world.  Only about 500 different viruses exist at 
this time; many of them have never existed in the wild and some 
have since been completely eliminated from the wild.  You can 
easily reduce your exposure to viruses with a few simple 
precautions.  Yes, it's still safe to turn on your computer!
The virus experts who claim much larger numbers usually work for 
antivirus companies.  They count even the most insignificant 
variations for advertising purposes.  When the Marijuana virus 
first appeared, for example, it contained the word legalise, but 
a miscreant later modified it to read legalize.  Any program 
which can detect the original virus can detect the version with 
one letter changed -- but antivirus companies count them as two 
viruses.  These obscure differentiations quickly add up.
And take note: the majority of new computer viruses discovered 
these days are only minor variations on well-known viruses.
Yes, and a spilled cup of coffee could do the same thing.  You 
can recover from any virus or coffee problem if you have adequate 
backups of your data.  Backups mean the difference between a 
nuisance and a disaster.  You can safely presume there has been 
more accidental loss of data than loss by all viruses and Trojan 
horses.

"Viruses have been documented on over 300,000 computers (1988)."
"Viruses have been documented on over 400,000 computers (1989)."
"The Michelangelo virus alone was estimated to be on over 
5,000,000 computers (1992)."


These numbers originated from John McAfee, a self-styled virus 
fighter who craves attention and media recognition.  If we assume 
it took him a mere five minutes to adequately document each viral 
infection, it would have taken four man-years of effort to 
document a problem only two years old by 1989.  We further assume 
McAfee's statements included every floppy disk ever infected up 
to that time by a virus, as well as every computer involved in 
the Christmas and Internet worm attacks.  (Worms cannot be 
included in virus infection statistics.)
     McAfee prefers to estimate his totals these days and was 
widely quoted during the Michelangelo virus hysteria in early 
1992.  Let's do some estimating ourselves by assuming about 80 
million IBM PC-compatible computers around the world.  McAfee's 
estimate meant one out of every 16 of those computers not only 
had a virus of some type, it specifically had the Michelangelo 
virus.  Many other virus experts considered it an astronomical 
estimate based on the empirical evidence.

Data files can't wreak havoc on your computer -- only an 
executable program file can do that (including the one that runs 
every time you turn on or reboot a computer).  If a virus 
infected a data file, it would be a wasted effort.  But let's be 
realistic: what you think is data may actually be an executable 
program file.  For example, a batch file on an IBM PC contains 
only text, yet DOS treats it just like an executable program.This myth
ironically surfaced when certain antivirus companies 
publicized how they could detect so-called Mutation Engine 
viruses.  The myth gained national exposure in early 1993 when 
the Associated Press printed excerpts from a new book about 
viruses.  Most viruses have a character-based signature which 
identifies it both to the virus (so it doesn't infect a program 
too many times) and to antivirus software (which uses the 
signature to detect the virus).  A Mutation Engine virus employs 
an algorithm signature rather than a character-based signature -- 
but it still has a unique, readily identifiable signature.
The technique of using algorithm signatures really doesn't make 
it any harder to detect a virus.  You just have to do some 
calculations to know the correct signature -- no big deal for an 
antivirus program.

BBSs and shareware programs spread viruses.


Here's another scary myth, this one spouted as gospel by many 
experts who claim to know how viruses spread.  The truth, says PC 
Magazine publisher Bill Machrone, is that all major viruses to 
date were transmitted by (retail) packages and private mail 
systems, often in universities.  (PC Magazine, October 11, 1988.) 
What Machrone said back then still applies today.  Over 50 retail 
companies have admitted spreading infected master disks to tens 
of thousands of customers since 1988 -- compared to only nine 
shareware authors who have spread viruses on master disks to less 
than 300 customers since 1990.
     Machrone goes on to say bulletin boards and shareware 
authors work extraordinarily hard at policing themselves to keep 
viruses out.  Reputable sysops check every file for Trojan 
horses; nationwide sysop networks help spread the word about 
dangerous files.  Yes, you should beware of the software you get 
from BBSs and shareware authors, but you should also beware of 
retail software found on store shelves.
     By the way, many stores now routinely re-shrinkwrap returned 
software and put it on the shelf again.  Do you know for sure 
only you ever touched those master disks?

BBSs can't write information on your disks -- the communications 
software you use performs this task.  You can only transfer a 
dangerous file to your computer if you let your software do it.  
And there is no 300bps subcarrier by which a virus can slip 
through a modem.  A joker who called himself Mike RoChenle (micro 
channel, get it?) started this myth after leaving a techy-joke 
message on a public network.  Unfortunately, some highly 
respected journalists got taken in by the joke.
This common myth -- touted as gospel even by experts -- expounds 
on the supposed role bulletin boards play in spreading 
infections.  Boot sector viruses spread only if you directly copy 
an infected floppy disk, or if you try to boot a computer from an 
infected disk, or if you use a floppy in an infected computer.  
BBSs deal exclusively with program files and don't pass along 
copies of boot sectors.  Bulletin board users thus have a natural 
immunity to boot-sector viruses in downloaded software.  (And 
since the clear majority of infections stem from boot sector 
viruses, this fact alone exonerates the BBS community as the 
so-called primary source for the spread of viruses.)
We should make a special note about dropper programs developed by 
virus researchers as an easy way to transfer boot sector viruses 
among themselves.  Since they don't replicate, dropper programs 
don't qualify as viruses.  These programs have never appeared on 
BBSs to date and have no real use other than to transfer infected 
boot sectors.
It also could have happened because of a power flux, or static 
electricity, or a fingerprint on a floppy disk, or a bug in your 
software, or perhaps a simple error on your part.  Power 
failures, spilled cups of coffee, and user errors have destroyed 
more data than all viruses combined.
Newspapers all over the country hailed a 1989 Texas computer 
crime trial as a virus trial.  The defendant, Donald Burleson, 
had released a destructive Trojan horse on his employer's 
mainframe computer.  The software in question couldn't spread to 
other computers, and prosecuting attorney Davis McCown claimed he 
never brought up the word virus during Burleson's trial.  So why 
did the media call it one?
David Kinney, an expert witness testifying for the defense, 
claimed Burleson had unleashed a virus.  The prosecuting attorney 
didn't argue the point and we don't blame him -- Kinney's claim 
may have actually swayed the jury to convict Burleson.
McCown gave reporters the facts behind the case and let them come 
up with their own definitions.  The Associated Press and USA 
Today, among others, used such vague definitions that any program 
would have qualified as a virus.  If we applied their definitions 
to the medical world, we could safely label penicillin as a 
biological virus (which is, of course, absurd).

Robert Morris Jr.  released a benign virus on a defense network.


 It supposedly may have been benign, but it wasn't a virus.  
Morris, the son of a chief computer scientist at the U.S. 
National Security Agency, decided one day to take advantage of 
bugs in the software which controls Internet, a network the 
Defense Department often uses.  These tiny bugs let Morris send a 
worm throughout the network.  Among other things, the Internet 
worm sent copies of itself to other computers -- and clogged the 
entire network in a matter of hours due to bugs in the worm 
module itself.  The press called it a virus, like it called the 
1987 Christmas worm a virus, because it spread to other 
computers.  Yet Morris's work didn't infect any computers.
A few notes:
 Reporters finally started calling it a worm a year after the 
fact, but only because lawyers on both sides of the case 
constantly referred to it as a worm.
 The worm operated only on Sun-3 VAX computers which employ the 
UNIX operating system and which were specifically linked into 
Internet at the time of the attack.
 The 6,200 affected computers cannot be counted in virus 
infection statistics (they weren't infected).
 It cost way less than $98 million to clean up the attack.  An 
official Cornell University report claims John McAfee, the man 
behind this wild estimate, was probably serving (him)self in an 
effort to drum up business.  People familiar with the case 
estimated the final figure at slightly under $1 million.
 Yes, Morris could easily have added some infection code to make 
it both a worm and a virus if he'd had the urge.
 Internet gurus have since fixed the bugs Morris exploited in the 
attack.
     Morris went on trial for launching the worm and received a 
federal conviction.  The Supreme Court refused to hear his case, 
so the conviction stands.

The U.S. government planted a virus in Iraqi military computers 
during the Gulf War.


U.S. News World Report in early 1992 claimed the National 
Security Agency had replaced a computer chip in a printer bound 
for Iraq just before the Gulf War with a secret computer chip 
containing a virus.  The magazine cited two unidentified senior 
U.S. officials as their source, saying once the virus was in the 
(Iraqi computer) system, ...each time an Iraqi technician opened 
a `window' on his computer screen to access information, the 
contents of the screen simply vanished.
     Yet the USNWR story shows amazing similarities to a 1991 
April Fool's joke published by InfoWorld magazine.  Most computer 
experts dismiss the USNWR story as a hoax -- an urban legend 
innocently created by the InfoWorld joke.
Some notes:
 USNWR continues to stand by its story, but did publish a 
clarification stating it could not be confirmed that the (virus) 
was ultimately successful.  The editors broke with tradition by 
declining to print any letters readers had submitted about it.
 Ted Koppel, a well-known American news anchor, opened one of his 
Nightline broadcasts with a report on the alleged virus.  
Koppel's staff politely refers people to talk with USNWR about 
the story's validity.
 InfoWorld didn't label their story as fiction, but the last 
paragraph identified it as an April Fool's joke.

The design of all Trojan horses limits them to a family of 
computers, something especially true for viruses.  A virus 
written for IBM PCs cannot infect an IBM 4300 series mainframe, 
nor can it infect a Commodore C-64, nor can it infect an Apple 
Macintosh.
But take note: some computers can now run software written for 
other types of computers.  An Apple Macintosh, with the right 
products, can run IBM PC software for example.  If one type of 
computer can run software written for another type of computer, 
then it can also catch viruses written for the other type of 
computer.


No, they won't.  Let's suppose a virus does get backed up with 
your files.  You can restore important documents and databases 
and spreadsheets -- your valuable data -- without restoring an 
infected program.  You just reinstall the programs from master 
disks.  It's tedious work, but not as hard as some people claim.
There is no such thing as a foolproof antivirus program.  Viruses 
and other Trojan horses can be (and have been) designed to bypass 
them.  Antivirus products also can be tricky to use at times and 
they occasionally have bugs.  Always use a good set of backups as 
your first line of defense; rely on antivirus software only as a 
second line of defense.
This common myth among IBM PC users has appeared even in some 
computer magazines.  Supposedly, you can protect yourself by 
using the ATTRIB command to set the read-only attribute on 
program files.  Yet ATTRIB is software -- what it can do, a virus 
can undo.  The ATTRIB command cannot halt the spread of most 
viruses.
Another common IBM PC myth.  If viruses can modify read-only 
files, people assume they can also modify files on 
write-protected disks.  However, the disk drive itself knows when 
a floppy has a write-protect tab and refuses to write to the 
disk.  You can't override an IBM PC drive's write-protect sensor 
with a software command.
  
How to protect yourself


We hope this dispels the many computer virus myths.  Viruses do 
exist, they are out there, they want to spread to other 
computers, and they can cause you problems.  But you can defend 
yourself with a cool head and a good set of backups.
     The following guidelines can shield you from viruses and 
other Trojan horses.  They will lower your chances of getting 
infected and raise your chances of recovering from an attack.
Be religious about backups


Implement a procedure to regularly back up your files and follow 
it religiously.  We can't emphasize this enough!  Consider 
purchasing a user-friendly program or a tape backup device to 
take the drudgery out of this task.  You'll find plenty of 
inexpensive programs and tape backup hardware to choose from.
Rotate between backups


Rotate between at least two sets of backups for better security 
(use set #1, then set #2, then set #1...).  The more sets you 
use, the better protection you have.  Many people take a master 
backup of their entire hard disk, then take a number of 
incremental backups of files which have changed since the last 
time they backed up.  Incremental backups might only require five 
minutes of your time each day.
Set your BIOS to bypass floppy drive seek at boot


Many IBM PC computers now have a BIOS option to ignore floppy 
drives during the bootup process.  Consult your computer's 
documentation to see if you can set this option.  It will greatly 
reduce your exposure to boot sector viruses (the most common type 
of computer virus).
Watch where your software comes from


Download files only from reputable BBSs where the sysop checks 
every program for Trojan horses.  If you're still afraid, 
consider getting programs from a BBS or disk vendor company which 
obtains files direct from the authors.
     Let a newly uploaded file mature on a BBS for one or two 
weeks before you download it (others will put it through its 
paces).
Use UP-TO-DATE antivirus software


Consider using a program that searches (scans) for known viruses.  
Almost all infections involve viruses known to antivirus 
companies.  A recent version (no more than four months old) of 
any scanning program will in all probability identify a virus 
before it can infect your computer.  But remember: there is no 
perfect antivirus defense.
     Consider using a program that creates a unique signature of 
all the programs on your computer.  Run this software once in 
awhile to see if any of your program files have been modified -- 
either by a virus or perhaps just by a stray gamma ray.
Don't panic!


Don't panic if your computer starts acting weird.  You might have 
a virus, but then again you might not.  Immediately turn off all 
power to your computer and disconnect it from any local area 
networks.  Reboot from a write-protected copy of your master DOS 
disk.  Don't run any programs on a regular disk -- you might 
activate a Trojan horse.  If you don't have adequate backups, try 
to bring them up-to-date.  (Yes, you might back up a virus as 
well, but it can't hurt you if you don't use your normal 
programs.) Set your backups off to the side.  Only then can you 
safely hunt for problems.
     If you can't figure out the problem and you don't know what 
to do next, just turn off your computer and call for help.  
Consider calling a local computer group before you call for an 
expert.  If you need a professional, consider a regular computer 
consultant first.  (Some virus removal experts charge prices far 
beyond their actual value.)
If you discover a new virus or trojan, tell the world


We'd appreciate it if you would mail us a copy of any Trojan 
horse or virus you discover.  (Be careful you don't damage the 
data on your disks while trying to do this!) Include as much 
information as you can and put a label on the disk saying it 
contains a malicious program.  Send it to Ross M. Greenberg, 
Software Concepts Design, Virus Acres, New Kingston, NY 12459.  
Thank you.

  
About the authors


Ross M. Greenberg writes both shareware and retail virus 
detection removal programs.  (Products aren't mentioned by name 
because this treatise isn't the place for advertisements.) He 
serves as a sysop for the Virus Security RoundTable on GEnie and 
is also currently working on a number of other products having 
nothing to do with computer viruses.
     Rob Rosenberger serves as lead sysop for CompuServe's 
SHAREWARE forum.  He has researched computer virus myths hoaxes 
since 1988.  His research on the cause of the Michelangelo virus 
scare of 1992 has been reprinted in ISPNews (a computer security 
industry newsletter); and he has consulted on computer virus data 
security books written by Janet Endrijonas, Pamela Kane, and 
Richard B. Levin.
     These men communicated entirely by modem while writing this 
treatise.
 Rosenberger can be reached electronically on CompuServe as 
(74017,1344), on GEnie as R.ROSENBERGE, on Internet as 
`74017.1344@compuserve.com', and on various national BBS linkups.  
Greenberg can be reached electronically on MCImail and BIX and 
GEnie as `greenber', on Internet as `greenber@ramnet.com', and on 
CompuServe as (72461,3212).
     You may give copies of this treatise to anyone if you pass 
it along unmodified and in its entirety.  We especially encourage 
antivirus vendors and book authors to bundle it with their 
products as a public service.


Printed publications may reprint this treatise in whole or in 
part, at no charge, if they give due credit to the authors.  
For-profit publications must submit two copies to: Rob 
Rosenberger, P.O.  Box 1115, O'Fallon, IL 62269.  Book 
publications need only submit one copy.  Non-profit publications 
do not have to submit any copies.
Copyright 1988,93 Rob Rosenberger  Ross M. Greenberg
Modified for Windows Help December 1995 by Cub Lea for Dynamic 
Living Media
  
Virus Myths: Definitions
    BBS (Bulletin Board System)
    Bug
    Hacker
    Shareware
    Trojan horse
    Virus
    Worm
    Wormers
If you have a modem, you can call a BBS and leave messages, 
transfer computer files back forth, and learn a lot about 
computers.  (What you're reading right now, for example, most 
likely came to you from a BBS.)
An accidental flaw in the logic of a program which makes it do 
things it shouldn't be doing.  Programmers don't mean to put bugs 
in their programs, but they always creep in.  Programmers often 
spend more time debugging programs than they do writing them in 
the first place.  Inadvertent bugs have caused more data loss 
than all viruses combined.
Someone who really loves computers and who wants to push them to 
the limit.  Hackers have a healthy sense of curiosity: they try 
doorknobs just to see if they're locked, for example.  They also 
love to tinker with a piece of equipment until it's just right.  
The entire computer revolution itself is largely a result of 
hackers.
A distribution method for quality software available on a try 
before you buy basis.  You must pay for it if you continue using 
it after the trial period.  Shareware authors let you download 
their programs from BBSs and encourage you to give evaluation 
copies to friends.  Many shareware applications rival their 
retail-shelf counterparts at a fraction of the price.  (You must 
pay for the shareware you continue to use --otherwise you're 
stealing software.)
A generic term describing a set of computer instructions 
purposely hidden inside a program.  Trojan horses tell programs 
to do things you don't expect them to do.  The term comes from 
the legendary battle in which the ancient city of Troy received a 
large wooden horse to commemorate a fierce battle.  The gift 
secretly held enemy soldiers in its belly and, when the Trojans 
rolled it into their fortified city, well, you know the story.
A term for a very specialized Trojan horse which spreads to other 
computers by secretly infecting programs with a copy of itself.  
A virus is the only type of Trojan horse which is contagious, 
much like the common cold.  If a Trojan horse doesn't meet this 
definition, then it isn't a virus.
A term similar to a Trojan horse, but there is no gift involved.  
If the Trojans had left that wooden horse outside the city, they 
wouldn't have been attacked from inside the city.  Worms, on the 
other hand, can bypass your defenses without having to deceive 
you into dropping your guard.  An example would be a program 
designed to spread itself by exploiting bugs in a network 
software package.  Worms usually come from someone who has 
legitimate access to the computer or network.
What we call people who unleash Trojan horses onto an 
unsuspecting public.  Let's face it, these people aren't angels.  
What they do hurts us.  They deserve our disrespect.
Viruses, like all Trojan horses, purposely make a program do 
things you don't expect it to do.  Some viruses will just annoy 
you, perhaps only displaying a Peace on earth greeting.  The 
viruses we worry about will try to erase your data (the most 
valuable asset of your computer!) and waste your valuable time in 
recovering from an attack.American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII)
A standard character-to-number encoding widely used in the 
computer industry.  Originally the numerical control (NC) tape 
punch format with odd parity (odd number of holes per tape row) 
used when paper tape was the common method used for storing 
computer information.  Now used mainly to define the set of 
characters used in most computers as keyboard-enterable 
characters (a total of 256)
anonymous FTP
Anonymous FTP allows a user to retrieve documents, files, 
programs, and other archived data from anywhere in the Internet 
without having to establish a userid (a unique user name for the 
specific system) and password.  By using the special userid of 
"anonymous" the network user will bypass local security checks 
and will have access to publicly available files on the remote 
system.
Ashton-Tate dBASE
Ashton-Tate is the American firm responsible for dBASE, the most 
popular database management system in existence still for 
IBM-compatibles even though a Windows version was not released 
until 1994.  Dbase is also used as novice slang for any database 
management system.
baud
Operational cycles per second in a communication network.  This 
is often confused with bytes per second or bits per second .  For 
practical purposes they have the same meaning but they do not 
refer to the same type of measurement; it's just a coincidence 
that the successful transmission of one bit of data was also a 
baud measurement.  Bits per second on a serial connection is 
actually the baud rate .  This term comes from J.M.E. Baudot 
(1845-1903), a French pioneer in printing telegraphy.
If in doubt, think of baud as the actual number of bits 
transferred or transferrable via hardwarebetween the remote and 
host computer, and bits per second as the number of bits 
transferrable via software .  Data compression techniques allow 
14.4Kbaud modems to transfer up to 57.6Kbps of data, but remember 
that this data is compressed .  The modem itself will only allow 
14.4Kbps of data to pass through its hardware.
bookmark (hotlist)
A bookmark is a saved location on the Internet used to reference 
a specific document, or a URL saved to a file.  Hotlist items are 
the same as bookmarks.  The use of each of these terms depends on 
the individual program; hotlists are usually associated with NCSA 
Mosaic and bookmark with Netscape.
browser
Software designed for the purpose of examining the contents of 
files, usually text or table data, in an understandable fashion.  
Commonly refers to Web browser, or World Wide Web browsing tool, 
although it can mean anything from a program designed for reading 
text files to a viewer for graphical images.
Byte Information Exchange (BIX)
BIX is an online information service designed for readers of 
Byte! Magazine which was quite popular in the late 1980s and 
survives to this day.
Center for Innovative Computer Applications (CICA)
Located at the University of Indiana, this computing research 
center is best known as the home of the CICA Windows Archive , 
the most complete and best-maintained Windows software archive on 
the Internet in 1994/95.  Mirrored at several sites around the 
world, CICA has practically become synonymous with Windows 
software on the Internet, in spite of the fact that the SimTel 
Windows archive is actually better-organized for World Wide Web 
users in particular and by the time you read this, may actually 
have a larger database.


client
A computer system or process that requests a service of another 
computer system or process.  A workstation requesting the 
contents of a file from a file server is a client of the file 
server.  [Source: NNSC] Also a program which processes data 
retrieved from a remote system, or the purchaser of online access 
services.CompuServe Information Services
One of the oldest and certainly the most venerable of the 
commercial online services, CompuServe has boasted the largest 
subscribership of any American commercial online service for 
years.  Like America Online, CompuServe came under fire from 
veteran Internet users for opening a net gateway through CIS with 
what was looked upon as less than an ideal introduction to 
Internet customs and behavior.
cracker
A cracker is an individual who attempts to access computer 
systems without authorization.  These individuals are often 
malicious, as opposed to hackers, and have many means at their 
disposal for breaking into a system.  The term was coined circa.  
1985 by hackers in defense against journalistic misuse of the 
term "hacker".
Also refers to hackers who attempt to break copy-protection and 
registration schemes in software, as in "This new game was 
cracked to work without registering it".  Also refers to software 
used in the software cracking process.
Data compression
Data compression is the process of reducing the storage 
requirements of data through the use of algorithms and 
mathematical formulae while still leaving the data useful.  
Compressed data is uncompressed using software designed for the 
task when the data is needed by the system.
Data compression is used primarily to reduce disk space 
requirements for data so that it can be archived in less physical 
space, but more recently the growth of the Internet has made 
reduced transmission time at least as important.
Two classes of compression
There are two basic classes of data compression: lossy and 
lossless .  Lossy compression reduces the level of detail in the 
data being compressed and provides no facility for restoring that 
lost detail at a later date.  It is used primarily with audio and 
video data where some loss of detail can be tolerated for the 
sake of reduced space requirement or transmission time.  JPEG, 
GIF and MPEG are examples of lossy compression.
Lossless compression stores all information about the data being 
compressed so that it can be restored to its complete, unaltered 
original form at a later date.  PKZIP, Doublespace/Stacker and 
compressed backup sets are examples of lossless compression.
Several types of compression
Compression can either be performed on individual files, multiple 
files (also known as archiving) or whole areas of a disk or other 
storage medium (also known as disk compression).
Data compression often refers to a method of compressing data for 
transmission over telecommunications circuits such as modems.  
Most modems have data compression software encoded directly into 
their chips, and the use of this software, which is usually 
recommended for modem communications, allows modems to send and 
receive data at much higher than their advertised baud rate.  
Using data compression, a 28.8kbaud modem can send and receive 
even files which have already been compressed at a rate of up to 
35 kbaud, and send and receive text at up to 115kbaud.
!CloseWindow(`morehelp')

download/upload
Refer to the process of copying a file from a host system to 
another computer or medium.  There are several different methods, 
or protocols, for downloading files in telecommunications, most 
of which periodically check the file as it is being copied to 
ensure no information is inadvertently destroyed or damaged 
during the process.  Some, such as XMODEM, only let you download 
one file at a time.  Others, such as batch-YMODEM and ZMODEM, let 
you type in the names of several files at once, which are then 
automatically downloaded.
Transferring newsgroups and email messages is also referred to as 
downloading; as is transferring data from one source to another, 
for example downloading files for backup to a floppy disk.
electronic mail (email)
A system whereby a computer user can exchange messages with other 
computer users (or groups of users) via a communications network.  
Electronic mail is one of the most popular uses of the Internet.  
[Source: NNSC]
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
A protocol which allows a user on one host to access, and 
transfer files to and from, another host over a network.  
Additionally, with command-line interfaces such as DOS and UNIX, 
FTP is usually the name of the program the user types to execute 
the protocol.  It is defined in STD 9, RFC 959.
GEnie
General Electric's international online service.  A serious 
competitor with CompuServe for many years, GEnie's market share 
has dropped considerably in the 1990s, and while it is still much 
loved by users it is no longer considered to be in the top three.
Graphics Interchange Format (GIF)
A format for coding computer graphic images using data 
compression copyrighted by CompuServe. Until 1996 the most common 
graphics format used on the Internet; CompuServe asserted its 
copyright late in 1994 and while end users may make use of the 
format without payment to CompuServe, commercial users may not.  
GIF is a bitmapped graphics format capable of 256 colors and 
unique features such as embedded commenting and interlacing.  
Soon to be replaced in popularity by formats such as PNG 
(Portable Network Graphics).
GZIP
GNU ZIP , a file compression utility created and released by the 
Free Software Foundation which can be used on a variety of 
platforms without the royalty payments required by PKZIP and most 
other popular file compression schemes.  GZIP archives usually 
have a .GZ extension, or simply a .Z extension, and may also be 
preprocessed with tar.host
A computer that allows users to communicate with other host 
computers on a network.  Individual users communicate by using 
application programs, such as electronic mail, TELNET and file 
transfer protocol (FTP) .  [Source: NNSC]
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
A world-wide "party line" protocol that allows one to converse 
with others in real time using keyboard input.  IRC is structured 
as a network of servers, each of which accepts connections from 
client programs, one per user.  [Source: The Jargon File 3.0.0]
Internet service provider
A firm or organization that provides access to Internet services 
such as email, newsgroups, IRC and World Wide Web.  Generally 
refers to a provider offering a full range of Internet services 
as opposed to a gateway.
Joint Pictures Experts Group (JPEG)
This acronym is more often used to refer to the graphics 
compression standard developed by JPEG than to refer to the JPEG 
organization itself.  JPEG is a form of lossy compression with a 
number of possible options which allows reduction of true-color 
(16 million color) graphics data to a fraction of its original 
size.  It represents the next stage in graphics processing for 
transportability, speed and archiving from GIF's compression, 
offering average reductions of as much as 1/24th original size.
JPEG is known as a lossy compression scheme because it reduces 
the level of detail in the image as a part of the compression 
process, and this detail is not restored when the image is 
uncompressed for viewing.  JPEG is the second most popular 
graphics format on the World Wide Web next to GIF.
link (hyperlink)
Telecommunications: a way to connect two Internet resources via a 
simple word, phrase or graphical object on which a user can click 
to start the connection.  [Source: "EFF's Guide to the Internet"]
General computing: refers to the same process when used in 
hypertext documents such as this helpfile; the hotspots in this 
helpfile are links.
Also: programming term used to refer to methods of joining bits 
of code so that the compiler knows how to read the code required 
for building a program.
Linux
A free version of a clone of the UNIX System V Release 3.0 
designed specifically for use on IBM-compatibles.  Created by 
Linus Torvalds of Norway, it was exceptionally well-received and 
supported with help, source code, applications and other 
contributions - most of them also free - to the point where it 
has become the operating system of choice for low- to 
medium-volume Internet providers.  It is available free on 
bulletin boards, FTP sites and inexpensive CDs (US$20 and under, 
more with manuals) containing the full operating system and a 
huge array of applications, utilities and source code are widely 
available.
Local Area Network (LAN)
A data network intended to serve an area of only a few square 
kilometers or less.  Because the network is known to cover only a 
small area, optimizations can be made in the network signal 
protocols that permit data rates up to 100Mb/s.  [Source: NNSC] 
Usually used to refer to small and medium-sized office-type 
networks or to large networks contained within a single physical 
location.
mailing list
A list of email addresses, used by a mail exploder, to forward 
messages to groups of people.  Generally, a mailing list is used 
to discuss certain set of topics, and different mailing lists 
discuss different topics.  A mailing list may be moderated.  This 
means that messages sent to the list are actually sent to a 
moderator who determines whether or not to send the messages on 
to everyone else. Requests to subscribe to, or leave, a mailing 
list should always be sent to the list's "-request" address 
(e.g., ietf-request@cnri.reston.va.us for the IETF mailing list).
Microcom Network Protocol level 5 (MNP-5)
A protocol for communications developed by Microcom that allowed 
data compression on data transmission (usually) over telephone 
lines.  Still found in many newer modems, replaced by CCITT 
protocols such as V.42.  There are several versions of MNP error 
correction; the only one in common use other than MNP-5 is MNP-4.mirror
Two common meanings.  With PCs, mirror refers to the act of 
copying the contents of a disk or section of a disk to another 
disk for purposes of archive storage or backup.  It was not 
commonly used on PCs due to the high cost of hard disks, but with 
newer hard disks priced at half or less the cost per megabyte of 
floppy disks, many users now use a second or third hard disk as 
their backup unit.
On the Internet, mirror can refer to either the act of mirroring 
a disk or part of a disk to another disk (often thousands of 
miles away) for the purpose of duplication, or to the site where 
the mirror is stored.  For example, many popular FTP sites mirror 
their archives to several different mirror sites every night.  
Having multiple copies of a popular archive allows the host site 
to spread the workload among several remote sites so it is not 
constantly tied up with people attempting to download.
Mosaic (NCSA and other)
The first high-quality World Wide Web browser program to use a 
graphic user interface and allow viewing of graphics on the 
screen instead of using an external picture viewer.  Developed by 
the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the 
University of Illinois, this was the standard by which browser 
software was measured until the release of Netscape 0.87 in 1994.
As of late 1995 it was still considered to be one of the three 
best programs of its kind, and is available for all major 
computer platforms.  Even as late as fall of 1995, Web browsers 
were often referred to as "mosaics" and the term (uncapitalized) 
appears to have passed into common usage as indicating a World 
Wide Web browser.
NCSA's Mosaic code has been used as the core software for several 
of the most popular browsers available today.
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)
An extension to Internet email which provides the ability to 
transfer non-textual data, such as graphics, audio and fax.  It 
is defined in RFC 1341.  MIME is the transmission protocol used 
to transfer non-text data associated with formatted HTML text 
over the World Wide Web.  (In other words, graphics and sound are 
transmitted as MIME and decoded at the remote computer prior to 
use.)
National Security Agency (NSA)
A US government agency whose purpose is to protect the internal 
security of the United States.  Next to the Republican National 
Caucus, the most feared group of all among knowledgeable American 
Internet users.  The agency most ardent in their push for the 
institution of the Clipper chip.


Netscape
Usually refers to Netscape Navigator, the most popular Internet 
interface program in use in 1995.  Also refers to Netscape 
Communications, the company responsible for designing and 
distributing Netscape Navigator.  Netscape markets a wide range 
of Internet software for both end users and providers at all 
levels, from their consumer-level browser to the most popular 
secure commerce server in use by private Internet service 
providers to high-end vendor distribution servers and databases 
costing upwards of $100,000.
Also used as an adjective to describe features of HTML coding and 
Web page design which were made possible by extensions to the 
HTML formatting language proposed and first implemented by 
Netscape Communications.
network
A computer network is a data communications system which 
interconnects computer systems at various different sites.   A 
network may be composed of any combination of LANs, MANs or WANs.
online, offline
Connected or disconnected from a network or resource.  When your 
hard disk is disconnected from your computer, it is "offline".
online service
A service, either networked or stand-alone, set up to provide 
information, messaging, or other forms of information for a group 
of people and managed by a central organization.  Usually used as 
a generic term for any pay-for-play dialup information service.  
Examples of consumer-oriented online services include GEnie, 
CompuServe, America Online and Prodigy.  May or may not provide 
Internet services or Internet gateway services, usually offered 
and advertised as self-contained databases.
page
In general computing, page has two meanings.
A page usually refers to a block of data designed to be moved in 
and out of memory as needed.  The size of this block depends on 
the application creating the page.  EMS uses pages of memory 64K 
in size to manage applications needing more than the base 640k of 
memory allowed by DOS.  ROM's also use pages to accelerate the 
movement of ROM data to and from the computer, improving the 
performance of the system.  Text mode DOS also uses a page, 4096 
bytes in length, for handling text graphics.
It can also refer to a screenful of text information in DOS text 
mode.  A single screen of data is referred to as a screen page .
In telecommunications, page can refer either to the act of 
requesting a response from someone via a remote device, or a 
formatted document available on the World Wide Web.  All 
HTML-formatted documents on the Web are referred to as pages.port
Networking: A port is a "transport layer demultiplexing value".  
Each application has a unique port number associated with it.  
Commonly used port addresses for Internet applications are port 
21 for FTP, port 80 for HTTP (World Wide Web), port 6667 for 
Internet Relay Chat (IRC) etc.
Personal computing: ports are also physical addresses in PCs 
designed to increase the flexibility of the computer; e.g. the 
average personal computer has at least three hardware ports 
available at all times: two serial ports (usually one for modem 
and one for mouse) and one parallel (usually used for the 
printer).
Serial ports are used for devices that accept information one bit 
at a time.  Parallel ports are used for devices that accept 
information eight bits at a time and are generally faster than 
serial ports.  You can assign network paths to a port; for 
example, if you are printing to a network printer.
Portable Network Graphics (PNG)
A format for graphics images gaining in popularity and expected 
to replace GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) as the graphics 
format of choice on the Internet some time in 1996/97.
posting
A submitted email message or newsgroup article.  So named, 
because like posting to a bookkeeping ledger or sending letter 
through the post office, once it's sent, it can't be taken back.
root
The top level of a disk drive or directory structure.  In DOS, 
C:\ is considered to be the normal root on the vast majority of 
PCs.  Root can also refer to the directory to which a user of a 
shared computer system is directed to automatically upon login 
regardless of where that directory might be on a particular 
computer.  Can also refer to the superuser or system 
administrator's account on a shared system.
search engine
Technically speaking, software on a host system designed to 
handle database queries by remote users and return the results to 
the remote user via a network connection.
Slang: the interface between a remote user of a database and the 
database itself; as in "Just fill in the form on this search 
engine and it will tell you what you can find here."
shell account
A special type of account available from most Internet service 
providers.  Allows direct command-line access to the host system.  
Advantages: the ability to work directly with the host computer 
as if the user was sitting directly in front of it.  
Disadvantages: difficulty in acquiring and implementing software 
designed for more advanced graphical user interface (GUI) 
features of the World Wide Web.
signature
The three or four line message at the bottom of a piece of email 
or a USENET article which identifies the sender.  Often used as a 
method of personalizing USENET postings and email.  Many include 
quotes, small ASCII drawings or advertising.  Large signatures 
(over five lines) are generally frowned upon.
SimTel
SIMTEL20 is the White Sands Missile Range which used to maintain 
a giant collection of free and low-cost software of all kinds, 
which was "mirrored" to numerous other ftp sites on the Net.  In 
the fall of 1993, the Air Force decided it had better things to 
do than maintain a free software library and shut it down.  But 
the collection lives on, now maintained by a Michigan company.  
[Source: "EFF's Guide to the Internet"] SimTel is the world's 
most popular Internet archive for MS-DOS software and one of the 
two most popular archives for Windows; the other is CICA at the 
University of Indiana.
site
Generic term; a location -- any location -- where data is stored 
or where users can log into the net or parts of it.  Site and 
domain are not the same thing.  If you are online right now, you 
are currently connected to your provider from your own client 
site, or remote site, to the provider's host site.  From there 
you can access other host sites.spike, line surge
A sharp, short-term increase in voltage through electrical 
circuits, feared by computer users due to the capacity of a line 
surge to fry electronic components.
Sun Microsystems
Manufacturer of high-powered microcomputers based in the US, 
their workstation computers have been the computers of choice for 
high-end graphical applications and commercial Internet service 
providers (the IBM-compatible has become more popular in recent 
years thanks to the growth of the Linux and BSD operating systems 
and the advent of parallel processing with the Pentium series 
chip).
sysadmin/admin
System administrator; person who maintains a network or computer 
system.
sysop
System operator; refers usually to the operator of a bulletin 
board system.
terminal
Refers either to a diskless workstation (a monitor, keyboard and 
perhaps a mouse and a minimal processor) connected to a network 
or a hardware pin or connector end.  Usually confused with 
terminal emulator; a terminal emulator is what most PCs use for 
connecting to dialup networks such as BBS' and Internet.
terminal emulator
A program that allows a computer to emulate a terminal.  The 
workstation thus appears as a terminal to the remote host.  
[Source: MALAMUD] On PCs terminal emulators are needed for 
connecting to BBS' and TELNET sites.  Terminal emulators are 
often incorrectly referred to as "terminal programs" or "modem 
programs"
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
An Internet address, generally offered in World Wide 
Web-compatible syntax.  Follows a standard format, which includes 
the protocol, followed by a colon and two forward slashes, 
followed by the domain, followed by the physical or aliased 
address of the file or program requested.
Example:
http://www.netfolks.com/total/farsighted.html
http:// signifies that the protocol is hypertext transfer; 
www.netfolks.com specifies the host computer where the resource 
is located, and /total/farsighted.html specifies that the 
resource is a file called farsighted.html located in a directory 
either called total  or aliased so that total will direct the 
user to the appropriate directory.
urban legend
A story, which may have started with a grain of truth, that has 
been embroidered and retold until it has passed into the realm of 
myth.  It is an interesting phenonmenon that these stories get 
spread so far, so fast and so often.  Urban legends never die, 
they just end up on the Internet! Some legends that periodically 
make their rounds include "The Infamous Modem Tax," "Craig 
Shergold/Brain Tumor/Get Well Cards," and "The $250 Cookie 
Recipe".  [Source: LAQUEY]
USENET (Netnews)
The sum total of a collection of thousands of topically named 
newsgroups (public messaging discussion groups devoted to a 
particular topic), the computers which run the protocols, and the 
people who read and submit USENET news.  Not all Internet hosts 
subscribe to USENET and not all USENET hosts are on the Internet.  
[Source: NWNET] Archaic: Netnews.

V.xx data conversion standards
V.xx denotes the standard for data conversion used by a given 
modem and indicates its capability for built-in error correction 
and data compression.  Standards for V.xx are laid down by CCITT.
V.14 : A standard in data conversion used in all V.32 and V.32bis 
modems
V.17 : The CCITT standard that specifies fax transmission and 
reception at 14,400 bps.
V.21 : The CCITT standard that specifies modem transmission at 
300 bps.
V.22 : The CCITT standard that specifies modem transmission at 
1200 bps with a fallback rate of 600 bps.  (Fallback rate is the 
transmission rate used by both ends of the connection if they 
fail to achieve a stable connection at the highest transmission 
rate.)
V.22bis : The CCITT standard that specifies modem transmission at 
2400 bps.
V.32: The CCITT standard that specifies modem transmission at 
9600 bps with a fallback rate of 4800 bps.
V.32bis : The CCITT standard that specifes modem transmission at 
14,400 bps with a fallback rate of 12,000 and 7200 bps.
V.32terbo : An unofficial standard that specifies modem 
transmission at 19,200 bps with a fallback rate of 16,800 and 
also the rates supported by V.32 and V.32 bis.
V.34: A CCITT standard that specifies modem transmission at 
28,800 bps with many fallback rates.
V.42: A CCITT error correction protocol which includes MNP levels 
1-4 and supports LAP/M error correction.
V.42bis : A CCITT standard for data compression.  A modem 
equipped with V.42 bis also includes V.42 error correction and 
MNP-5 data compression.  Almost all new modems being sold today 
comply with V.42bis .
V.FAST: An unofficial standard that specifies modem transmission 
at 28,800 bps with fallback rates.  This is also known as V.FC, a 
standard proposed and marketed by US Robotics and not supported 
by the industry.  Most consumer experts recommend avoiding 
high-speed V.FAST modems which are not upgradeable with software.

warez
Hacker slang for pirated (illegal or unlicensed) software.  
Warezing is the practice of trading in pirated software, usually 
as a hobby but often as a means of acquiring software tools the 
user would not otherwise be able to afford or wish to purchase.
World Wide Web (WWW or W3)
A hypertext-based, distributed information system created by 
researchers at CERN in Switzerland.  Users may create, edit or 
browse hypertext documents.  One of the newest Internet services, 
it has grown in a very short time to become the most-used service 
on the net.  Many novice users mistakenly refer to the Web as the 
Internet itself, when in fact it is only one of several available 
services.
Most WWW documents incorporate graphics, and the limit as to what 
such documents may incorporate (e.g. sound, animation, etc.) is 
virtually unlimited.  The clients and servers are freely 
available, and many commercial implementations are also in use.
The 80x86 Chip Chart
80x86 is a generic term used to refer to the part number 
designation for the Intel line of microprocessors used as CPUs in 
IBM-compatible computers and other electronics.  The same numbers 
have been used by other manufacturers, including Cyrix, AMD, 
Texas Instruments and others to describe their versions of chips 
with virtually identical characteristics and performance.
The following is a table of the most popular chips in the series 
and their relative capabilities.  Select the chip number to see 
more information or simply scroll through this topic to see 
information about all chips on this list.


8088   8086     8087    80186

80286  80287    80386SX 80386DX

80387  80386SL  80486DX 80486DX2

80487DX80486SX  80486DLC80586, 80686

P-5    P-6      P-24    
8088 : First IBM-PC CPU chip; operated at a speed of 3.5MHz on an 
8-bit bus.  Engineered to address a maximum of 1Mb of memory; can 
address up to 32Mb with expanded memory cards.  Also known 
(slang) as the PC chip.
8086 : Next generation IBM-PC/XT (Extended Technology) CPU; 
operated at speeds of 4.77MHz to 10MHz depending on the model and 
manufacturer (some clone chips were somewhat faster).  First chip 
to offer two-speed operation; the faster speed is known as 
"turbo", and this two-speed capability continues up to the 486.  
Also known (slang) as the XT chip .
8087 : Math coprocessor chip for 8088/8086 CPUs, and also usable 
on systems up to and including many 80386's which contained 
sockets for these chips.  Floating point math processor offered a 
significant performance increase for CAD and spreadsheet 
operations and made these applications barely livable.  Usually 
cost more than the CPU itself.
80186 : First IBM-PC/AT (Advanced Technology) CPU; operated at 
speeds of 6MHz to 12MHz on a 16-bit bus .  Intel's limp response 
to Motorola's 68000 microprocessor; short-lived in the 
marketplace since the 286 was released soon afterward and 186 
motherboards were prone to buggy behavior and early failure.  
Introduced extended memory; the ability to add memory above 1Mb 
and address it through the use of software memory managers .  
Also known (slang) as the 186.
80286 : First serious IBM-PC/AT CPU.  The chip that truly set the 
AT standard.  Operated at speeds of 6MHz to 30MHz on a 16-bit 
bus.  Permitted the same extended memory capability as the 286.
80287 : Math coprocessor chip for the 80286 series.  Beginning 
with the 80287, the coprocessor had to be speed-matched to the 
CPU chip, meaning that an 80287 16MHz would not ordinarily be 
usable when matched with an 80286 12MHz CPU.  These coprocessors 
were also usable on many 386 motherboards as inexpensive 
alternatives to true 80387 math coprocessors.  Usually cost as 
much as the CPU itself.
80386SX : Next in line after the 80286; operated at speeds of 
16MHz to 33MHz on a 16-bit bus.  Originally introduced on IBM's 
Personal System/2 computers.  Introduced the facilty for Shadow 
RAM (the ability to map ROM memory into RAM for higher system 
performance).  The chip that made GUI's on IBM-compatibles 
possible years after everyone using the Motorola 68000 had them.  
Also known (slang) as the 386 or 386SX.
80386DX : Offered twice the potential power of the SX and made 
Windows a viable operating system. 
Also allowed for two types of memory at two different speeds, 
specifically for "cache" memory to accelerate most-used functions 
such as screen display rewrites and disk access.  Operated at 
speeds of 20MHz to 33MHz (Intel models) and up to 40MHz (AMD 
clone chips) on a 32-bit bus.  The chip that made OS/2 a viable 
operating system for the IBM-compatible.  Also known (slang) as 
the 386DX or 386; still used in some home electronics (e.g. 
microwave ovens); no longer manufactured for PCs by Intel as of 
1994.
80386SL : The L was usually said to refer to Laptop , but in 
reality it stands for L ow power consumption; designed for laptop 
computers.  Functionally identical to the 80386SX.
80387 : Math coprocessor chip for the 80386 CPU series.  These 
made fractals, raytracing and other high-quality graphics and 
animation livable on IBM-compatibles.  Beginning with the 80387, 
the coprocessor had to be not merely speed-matched to the CPU 
chip but bus matched as well, meaning that an 80387DX 20MHz 
coprocessor (32-bit bus) would not ordinarily be usable when 
matched with an 80386SX 20MHz (16-bit bus) CPU.  Usually cost 
slightly less than the CPU.
80486DX : The original 486 chip; true 32-bit operation, includes 
a built-in math coprocessor.  Operated at speeds ranging from 
20MHz to 50MHz.  Significant speed improvements over the 386 are 
due in part to the coprocessor and also in part to an ultra-fast 
8K cache housed in the CPU itself which processed the most 
frequently accessed instructions at speeds much higher than RAM 
memory.  The chip that made Windows 95 possible and OS/2 livable.  
Early models of 486DX chips were known for excessive heat and 
early failure, and most 486DX chips require cooling devices of 
their own for reliable operation.
80486DX2,3 or 4 : A 486 CPU chip with supposedly a more durable 
construction to allow its processing speed to be tied to a system 
clock running at double or triple its normal rated speed.  
(DX4-100 chips are not DX-25 chips quadrupled in speed, but 
rather are DX-33 chips tripled in speed).
80486SX : A chip that was never supposed to exist.  Operated at 
speeds of 25Mz to 50MHz.  Originally created by clone 
manufacturers (not Intel), this is a 486 chip without the math 
coprocessing circuitry.  Intel responded by offering their own 
486SX chips which were essentially 486DX chips whose math 
coprocessors had been short-circuited at the factory.  Made 486 
computers at 386 prices a reality.
80487DX : The chip that never existed, and a very ugly tale.  
(See crippleware for details)
80486DLC, 80486SLC, 80486DRX2 etc. : 80486 clone chips 
manufactured by Texas Instruments , Cyrix, AMD and others.  
Various performance and compatibility specifications.  "LC" 
usually stands for "low consumption" (of power) and while these 
chips were designed for laptop and notebook computers, many found 
their way into home computers as well.
80586, 80686 : Not acknowledged by Intel to be true model numbers 
for this series of chip, since Intel failed to trademark the 
numbers.  Used by some clone chip manufacturers and sellers to 
describe their Pentium-level CPUs.  See P-5, P-6, Pentium, 
Pentium Pro.
P-5 (Pentium) : Original name for the Pentium microprocessor, 
successor to the 80486.  In addition to the 486's features 
Pentium offered speeds ranging from 60MHz to 133MHz, a 64-bit 
memory data bus and a larger internal cache (16K) than the 486.  
The first production runs of 60MHz chips were the ones with the 
famous math flaws; no other speed of Pentium chip was affected.  
Early models of Pentiums were also known for excessive heat and 
early failure.  Among its other performance-enhancing features 
are branch prediction, which tries to guess program instructions 
and pre-execute them to save time (just in case the prediction is 
right), and superscalar construction with the equivalent of over 
three million transistors.
P-6 (Pentium Pro) : Just released at this writing as the Pentium 
Pro , supposed to be the successor to the Pentium but provides an 
improvement in performance more in line with a hopped-up Pentium 
than a new generation of microprocessor.
P-24 : Pentium Overdrive chip designed to operate on 32-bit bus 
motherboards (specifically upgradeable 486 motherboards ) to 
improve performance.  Supposed to be direct plug-in replacements 
for the 486 but do not provide nearly the improvement in 
performance of a Pentium chip on a Pentium-oriented 64-bit 
motherboard.

adapter
Two primary meanings in regard to computing; an additional 
meaning applies to personal computers.
Adapter usually refers to hardware used by a peripheral device to 
"adapt" it to the system on which it is installed.  Adapter card 
is used interchangeably with peripheral card to refer to circuit 
boards installed in computers to connect peripheral devices.
Devices used to convert one type of connection to another type 
are also referred to as adapters.  For example, adapters exist to 
convert the standard IBM-compatible keyboard plug type to a 
smaller plug type for use with a notebook computer, or for 
converting nine-pin serial port plugs and sockets to 23-pin and 
vice versa.
Adapter can also refer to a power supply adapter transformer used 
for hardware attached to a computer.  Many speaker systems used 
by home PCs require "power packs" or "adapters" (sometimes called 
wall pack adapters by manufacturers) to supply power in place of 
batteries.
Adobe Type Manager (ATM)
This is a software product developed by Adobe for IBM-compatible, 
UNIX and Macintosh computers that permits a type of scalable font 
that conforms to the Adobe Postscript Type 1 specification to be 
used on that system by one or all programs capable of using 
scalable fonts.  Next to TrueType, it is the most common scalable 
font format in use today, but lags far behind TrueType's 
popularity thanks to TrueType being the Windows standard.
algorithm
A predetermined set of instructions for solving mathematical 
problem in a given number of steps.  Algorithms function by 
applying a step-by-step procedure that insures a specific outcome 
or solution a specific problem.  An essential aspect of computer 
programming.
Amiga
The successor to the Commodore C-64, the Amiga was Commodore's 
flagship computer until they concentrated on becoming primarily 
IBM clone manufacturers early in the 1990s.  The Amiga was based 
on Motorola's 68000-series chip and offered a graphical user 
interface as well as command-line operation (AmigaDOS), making it 
more versatile in that respect than the Macintosh or Atari ST, 
but never a serious contender to Mac's supremacy in the 
68000-based PC class.  It was a superb graphics and game computer 
with capabilities which were never fully exploited in the 
marketplace and suffered unfortunate operating system bugs.  It 
was the first popular PC brand capable of multitasking.
The Amiga still maintains a loyal following of users.  It is 
primarily used today in commercial video production.
analog
In computing terms, any thing or event which is not expressible 
in terms of integers, i.e. 0's and 1's, or fixed states, i.e. 
on/off.annotation
Annotations are usually personal notes or comments attached to a 
Windows helpfile.  For example, a note could be added to this 
helpfile by clicking Edit and selecting Annotate.  Windows 
displays a Notepad-like text box where you can type and save your 
notes.  The next time you view the helpfile, that note is visible 
in the helpfile as a paper clip you can click to view the 
annotation.  Create a test annotation now to see how this works.
Apple Computers
Sunnyvale, California-based Apple Computers are best known today 
as manufacturers of the Apple Macintosh PC, a graphically-based, 
integrated PC with a proprietary operating system.  For more than 
a decade it has been considered "the" alternative to 
IBM-compatible/Microsoft PC computing.
Trivia:
Apple began as the American dream: two young whiz-kid hackers 
named Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak who essentially built the 
first Apple computers in a basement.  The Apple ][ went on to 
become the first popular home computer and a market leader until 
the introduction of Commodore's C-64, thanks to the low price and 
high performance of these computers, which came standard with an 
unheard-of 32K of memory.
application
A program that performs a function directly for a user.  FTP, 
mail and TELNET clients are examples of network applications.  
Spreadsheets, word processors and games are examples of personal 
applications.
archive bit
One of the bits in a file's attribute byte; used mainly to store 
a file's backup status; i.e.  the bit is set to 1 if the file has 
been backed up and to 0 if the file has not been backed up.  DOS 
and Windows automatically restore a file's archive bit to the NOT 
SET state (meaning not backed up) when changes are made to it 
unless specifically instructed not to do so.
Atari (extended topic)
A California computer manufacturer (yes, a computer manufacturer) 
taken over in the early 1980s by the Tramiel family who had been 
at the helm of Commodore during the heyday of the Commodore C-64 
and for a time during the development of the Amiga.
The company was, and still is, known primarily as manufacturers 
of computer games, such as the arcade machines Centipede, Battle 
Zone and Missile Command, and the home game machine Atari 2600 
which was the first popular cartridge-based game console.
Atari is better known in Europe as manufacturers of the Atari ST, 
STe and TT lines of personal computers, which were top-ranked 
products behind the IBM-compatible and ahead of Macintosh in 
Europe for many years.  Many people felt the ST/STe/TT line could 
have been the great hope for inexpensive, high-performance 
GUI-based home computing, but it was not to be.
These elegant, compact machines featured an implementation of 
DRI's GEM interface, an enormous range of high quality software 
(particularly considering the size of the user base), built-in 
MIDI and digital sound capabilities as early as 1985 when the 
first STs were released, and the lowest retail prices of any 
comparably-powered PCs until the release of the TT line.
Some believe price was the eventual undoing of Atari, 
particularly in North America.  Many developers claimed Atari 
users were less willing to pay for quality software than users on 
other platforms, although this point is a matter of much dispute.
According to insiders, Atari instead fell victim to top-level 
management mistakes, and the ST/STe/TT line died a quiet death in 
the early 1990s.  Today Atari is best known as manufacturer of 
the 64-bit Jaguar game system, a fact lamented by many ex-users 
including this writer. [ - Cub Lea]
attribute
Generally speaking, a particular characteristic of a file or 
piece of data.  Used most common to describe the state of a disk 
file.  DOS and Windows use byte 11 of the file's directory entry 
and store a file's alterability (read/write), hidden or visible, 
system status and archive bit.
AutoCAD, Autodesk Inc.
AutoCAD, produced by Autodesk Inc., is considered industrywide to 
be the standard for vector graphic design, and has a price to 
match its reputation (basic AutoCAD packages for professional use 
have always run in the thousands of dollars).
Used for everything from high-end drafting and design to 
engineering, animation, simulations and both still and 
three-dimensional graphic arts, it is an extremely versatile and 
exceptionally well-supported product which appears likely to 
remain the industry standard through the end of the century.
AUTOEXEC.BAT
A file used on DOS-based personal computer operating systems to 
configure system and software settings and parameters at boot-up.   
CONFIG.SYS, operating system, disk operating system (DOS)
backup
Strictly speaking, backup refers to an archived copy of a file or 
set of files, regardless of where this archive is stored.  
Practically, backup also refers to the process of creating 
archived copies of data, and is used as one word, "backup", 
rather than two, as in "When are you going to backup that hard 
disk?"
The high vulnerability of magnetic and optical media to damage 
makes regular backups a critical part of routine file management 
for all computer users, since the data created on a computer is 
usually much more valuable and difficult to replace than the 
programs used to create that data.
Ideally, all important data should be backed up twice, and one 
copy of the backup stored a safe distance from the location of 
the computer to protect against loss of backup media in the event 
of theft or damage to the computer.Basic Input Output System (BIOS)
The software and hardware which govern a PC's data input-output 
functions.  These are usually controlled by specific chips in the 
computer which store semi-permanent information about the 
system's configuration.  Many BIOS functions are also managed by 
software in more advanced operating systems capable of taking 
over these duties.  Pertains to all data coming into and going 
out of the CPU, including data from disks, RAM, video, audio and 
any other forms.
batch
A collection of commands.  Batch is also known as the rudimentary 
programming language on a command line operating system in which 
groups of typed commands can be combined into a text file.  This 
text file, when executed as if it were a program, executes the 
commands on the list in the order presented.
battery (CMOS battery)
On a PC, refers to a small cylindrical or disk-shaped battery 
usually located at the back of the motherboard or connected to 
the motherboard by a short cable.  This battery is used to 
preserve time, date and hardware configuration while the computer 
is powered down.  Believed by many industry watchers to be one of 
the dumbest design components of the IBM-compatible, since memory 
chips to hold this information can be created which do not 
require battery back-up to store their information.
Borland
American software giant responsible for a number of extremely 
popular programs, among them the Quattro Pro spreadsheet, Paradox 
database, and the most popular C and Pascal programming packages 
in use for Windows and DOS.
bug
Unwanted or unexpected response from a piece of hardware or 
software.  Stems from an incident with an early Mark I computer 
at Harvard University in the 1940's.  U.S.  Navy officer Grace 
Murray Hopper found the remains of a moth blocking an electrical 
switch and disrupting the operations of the computer.  Since 
then, the process of filtering out unwanted program responses has 
been known as "debugging".


bundle
A computer marketing term that refers either to a package of 
separate products offered as part of a larger package or the act 
of creating such a package.  Bundling is standard practice in the 
industry as a competitive measure, and even operating systems now 
come as software bundles.  For example, Windows 3.1 came not just 
as an operating system, but bundled with a paint program, a word 
processor and a card game.  In turn, computer retailers bundle 
Window 3.1 or Windows 95 with their computers when they are sold 
to the public.
byte
Bits organized together into a "word" to hold a symbol 
letter/number.  On most PC's, Eight zero's or one's; eight "bits" 
of information (not to be confused with "nibble".  (Byte is a 
flexible term; some computers use byte sizes as high as 36 bits.) 
A byte is eight bits, or a combination of eight on-off switches.  
It sounds pretty meaningless until you see bytes as similar to 
LED letters and numbers.  Think of each segment is a bit, and the 
combination of these segments, on or off, make up all the letters 
and numbers in your computer's alphabet.
Software cache (extended topic)
There are two main types of caches in use on most modern PCs: 
hardware caches and software caches.  (Hardware caches are 
covered in the internal and external cache topic.)
A software cache reserves a block of memory reserved for use 
outside the normal function of the operating system.  Caching is 
used primarily as a method of dedicating areas of memory to 
specific functions as a means of speeding up the operation of the 
whole system or specific parts of it.  Caches usually operate 
transparently, meaning that the operator never notices them in 
use except insofar as they improve or degrade system performance.
In most cases, a cache is an intermediate temporary storage dump 
for data destined for a specific output device.
Print caches store data destined for the printer and feed that 
data to the printer port during times when the system is not 
otherwise in use, a handy feature with operating systems such as 
Windows 3.1 that dedicate the whole system to input/output when 
jobs such as printing and disk writes have been requested.  Disk 
caches store data destined for the hard disk or floppy disk and 
wait for free system time just like print caches, allowing the 
operator to return to work without waiting for the system to 
write data.
Read-ahead caching is often used on hard disks to accelerate 
their performance as well.  Blocks of data from the CD are read 
into memory or written to the hard disk where they can be 
accessed much more quickly when needed.
Caches are not always beneficial to the system; the amount of 
improvement or degradation of performance they provide depends on 
how they are used and the amount of memory available on the 
system for other tasks.

carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS)
A painful nerve disorder suffered by people who work with 
computers.  CTS gets its name from the narrow tunnel in the wrist 
connecting ligament and bone.  The median nerve, which carries 
impulses from the brain to the hand, and the tendons that open 
and close the hand are found in the carpal tunnel.  When undue 
pressure is put on the tendons, they can swell and compress the 
median nerve, causing numbness, weakness, tingling, and burning 
in the fingers and hands.  Usually caused by poor keyboard 
posture, lack of support for hands and wrists, and believed to be 
made worse by deficiencies of specific nutrients, most notably 
Vitamin B-6.  Once a true positive diagnosis is made, there is no 
known long-term solution other than surgery to the affected 
ligament to relieve the pressure and remove tissue.
As early as 1992, the US National Institute for Occupational 
Safety and Health was claiming that thousands of Americans were 
already afflicted.  It was only in 1994 that the term became 
widely known.  Some experts believe that CTS is severely 
overdiagnosed, and that most of those who have been diagnosed 
with CTS actually have a less severe and reversible, but no less 
uncomfortable, disorder known as tendosynovitis.cathode ray tube (CRT)
The display tube used for computer generated graphics and/or 
text; also used in televisions.  So named because the device is a 
vacuum tube with one or three electron "guns" that fire cathode 
"rays" at the phosphorescent coating inside the front of the 
tube.
CBM
Commodore Business Machines
central processing unit (CPU)
The heart any computer, comprising arithmetic, control, and logic 
elements.  In Macintosh's the CPU is usually a Motorola 
68000-series (e.g. a 68040); in IBM-compatibles there are several 
possible brands, usually referred to as xxx86 chips (e.g. AMD 
80486-DX 80MHz, Intel 80486-SX 25MHz, Cyrix 80486-DC 33MHz, etc.)
chip
A computer chip is actually only a small fragment of what most 
people think of as a chip.  The chip itself is a small wafer of 
silicon fractions of an inch in size housed in plastic or ceramic 
material and surrounded by a grid of wires or connector pins that 
allow it to interact with other components.
chipset
Two or more large-scale integrated circuits used to perform a set 
of functions in a PC which must be present together in order to 
work.  Usually refers to the chips on a motherboard used by the 
hardware for memory and bus management.
CHKDSK.EXE
A DOS program used for cleaning up hard disk errors, essential 
for most Windows 3.1 users.  DOS file management requires opened 
files to be closed by the operating system when a program ends so 
that their beginning and endpoints can be recorded in the file 
allocation table (FAT).  Unfortunately, when the system is turned 
off without closing all programs or after a fatal crash of 
Windows, these files are usually not closed properly.  When this 
occurs, stray data is left on the disk which could interfere with 
the integrity of other files or, at the very least, take up 
unwanted space.  CHKDSK.EXE is the program designed to correct 
such problems as well as several other errors in file and 
directory structure.
CHKDSK.EXE does not detect or correct errors in the magnetic 
media of a disk itself.  In DOS 6.0 and higher this job is 
reserved for Scandisk, which also includes CHKDSK.EXE 's 
features.
clone
The term originated in genetics to indicate an exact genetic copy 
of a specific organism, but it has since passed into common usage 
as slang for identical copy .  In computing it has specific 
meaning.  When discussing hardware, it means hardware that 
precisely mimics the capabilities of a specific make and model of 
hardware which has become a standard but (usually) without 
violating copyright or patent laws.
The most common use for clone in computing is when referring to 
an entire computer.  Originally the common term was IBM clone , 
meant to indicate that the computer was 100 percent compatible 
with IBM's specifications for that particular type of computer.
Clone can also refer to software that mimics a common piece of 
more expensive or better-known software, although the term is 
usually reserved for software which mimics all of the original 
program's features.
cluster
A group of sectors on a hard disk or floppy disk.  Floppy disk 
clusters are usually two sectors (one on each side of the disk) 
but because hard disks can include several actual disks or 
platters, the cluster size of a hard disk is usually the size of 
a sector times the number of platters times two.  Newer, more 
sophisticated hard disk formatting techniques now allow most hard 
disks to have two-sector clusters regardless of the number of 
platters.
cold boot
To start, or boot, a computer from a power-off state; physically 
"cold".  This is usually the last resort when restarting a 
computer, as most functions can be reset using a warm boot in 
less time and with less potential loss of data.Commodore C-64
Until the IBM-compatible came into its own as an affordable home 
computer, Commodore's C-64 series of personal computers were the 
most popular personal computers in history, and until very 
recently were the single biggest-selling make and model of 
computer ever, despite being out of manufacture for nearly a 
decade.
The C-64 featured a then-enormous 64K of memory, and Commodore's 
massive marketing effort insured an enormous amount of support 
from software and hardware developers.  As its popularity grew it 
gained a graphically-based operating shell called GEOS which is 
still implemented in some PC software, mouse and modem support, 
superb game play for products of this era, and literally tens of 
thousands of programs were available for it.  Considered by some 
to be the first true family PC, it fell out of market favor with 
the release of the Macintosh, Atari ST and Commodore's own Amiga 
line and reductions in the relative cost of IBM-compatibles in 
the mid-1980s.
compact disk read-only memory (CD-ROM)
Optical disk used as data storage medium.  High storage 
(600Mb-plus per CD is possible now; several gigabytes will be 
common in a few years), short shelf life (the recorded surface 
begins to decay within a year or two).
complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
Type of electronic circuitry.  This circuitry is used in 
IBM-compatible computers for storage of critical information 
about the system's configuration.
Computer Graphics Adapter (CGA)
Describes both the type of circuit board or video card needed for 
CGA compatibility, and the type of software emulation needed to 
view it.  Few colors, low resolution, obsolete.
CONFIG.SYS
A file used on DOS-compatible personal computers to to configure 
system and software settings and parameters at boot-up, mainly 
concerning hardware/software interfacing.
Control Program for Microcomputers (CP/M)
An early microcomputer operating system written by hacker Gary 
Kildall for 8080- and Z80-based machines, very popular in the 
late 1970s but virtually wiped out by MS-DOS after the release of 
the IBM PC in 1981.  Legend has it that Kildall's company blew 
its chance to write the OS for the IBM PC because Kildall decided 
to spend a day IBM's reps wanted to meet with him enjoying the 
perfect flying weather in his private plane.  Many of CP/M's 
features and conventions strongly resemble those of early DEC 
operating systems such as TOPS-10, OS/8, RSTS, and RSX-11.  
[Source: The Jargon File 3.0.0]
copy protection
A method of encoding data so that it cannot be duplicated as a 
method of preventing unauthorized use of the software.  
Considered by most experienced users as a troublesome and often 
stupid method of maximizing revenues to software producers, as 
the vast majority of users of unlicensed software would not or 
could not pay for the software whether it was protected or not.
crash, crash recovery
A sudden, usually drastic failure of a program, operating system 
or piece of computer hardware.
Crash recovery refers either to the act of recovering from a 
crash or the facilities of a particular piece of software or 
hardware for dealing with a crash.  For example, Windows 95 
offers enhanced crash recovery over Windows 3.1 because it often 
allows the user to save data in their program before closing a 
program which has crashed an area of memory.
Creative Labs Inc., Sound Blaster
Manufactured by Creative Labs, the Sound Blaster set the standard 
for digital sound on the IBM-compatible, and despite its 
Yamaha-licensed FM synthesis being almost a decate behind modern 
synthesis methods, it continues to be the standard which other 
manufacturers must meet when developing for the IBM-compatible.  
Sound Blaster peripheral cards provide the ability to use CD-ROM 
drives as players for music CDs, recording and playback of 
digitized sound samples, internal (and, on some models, external) 
MIDI music compatibility and a built-in synthesizer capable of 
FM-type synthesis.crippleware
Software or hardware that has some important functionality 
deliberately removed, so as to entice potential users to pay for 
a working version, or which has been deliberately crippled, and 
can be upgraded to a more expensive model by a trivial change 
(e.g., cutting a jumper or connecting a cable).
Crippleware usually refers to fully-functional software 
distributed freely which cannot have all of its features 
activated until the user pays for a license and receives a serial 
number designed to activate the crippled features.  Loosely 
speaking, PC/Internet Lexicon could be termed crippleware.
An excellent example of crippleware is Intel's 486SX chip, which 
is a standard 486DX chip with the co-processor dyked out (in some 
early versions it was present but disabled).  To upgrade, you buy 
a complete 486DX chip with working co-processor (its identity 
thinly veiled by a different pinout) and plug it into the board's 
expansion socket.  It then disables the SX, which becomes a fancy 
power sink.  Don't you love Intel? [Source: The Jargon File 
3.0.0]


cursor
Strictly speaking, it's the horizontal or vertical line (or, in 
some DOS and Windows programs, the vertical block) that indicates 
the current "focus" or active location of the screen where text 
may be entered, commands may be given or menu items typed in.  
The mouse arrow is also considered to be a cursor.
cylinder
A cylinder is a "ring" of data on a hard disk.  Hard disks can 
have hundreds of tracks, which are magnetic regions similar to 
the rings seen in the cross-section of a tree trunk.  Hard disks 
may use several stacked metal platters, not just a single disk, 
and a cylinder refers to all tracks in the same location on all 
platters in the hard disk.
database
A structured collection of information, usually on a related 
subject, maintained as a unified whole which may be accessed in a 
variety of ways by the user.
debug
The act of tracing and correcting errors or unwanted output in a 
process or program.
Also: DEBUG.EXE , a DOS program designed for accessing the 
operating system, programs and hardware directly from the command 
line for purposes of alteration and investigation.  Specialized 
programs designed for this purpose are also referred to as 
debuggers.
defragment
Over time, files which are changed or added to, or data which is 
added to the system, becomes fragmented, meaning that files may 
be split into sections spread over several areas of a hard disk.  
Accessing a fragmented file takes longer than accessing a 
contiguous file, or one which is laid out end to end on only one 
area of the hard disk.  Defragmentation is the process of 
reorganizing a disk (almost always a hard disk) so that all files 
are contiguous.  Defragmentation also usually involves reordering 
directory data so that it sits at the front of the disk where it 
can be accessed more quickly and with less stress on drive 
mechanisms, and can also involve moving all files to the front of 
the disk where they can be accessed with less drive head 
movement.
Defragmentation is routine maintenance for home and business PCs 
which should be done at least three times annually to insure that 
the system runs at peak performance.  Defragmentation can also 
prolong the useful life of some hard disks by reducing the 
workload on the drive head mechanisms.
desktop
In a graphical operating environment (GUI) such as Windows or 
OS/2, the combination of elements that make up the visible 
display, including windows, icons, background graphics, and any 
custom features added to the display by the user, are referred to 
as the desktop.  Virtual desktops are also possible with GUI's, 
and these permit work areas or display areas which extend off the 
sides of the visible screen to be included in the activities 
performed by the system.
desktop publishing (DTP)
A generic term used to refer to any kind of word processing or 
document formatting work designed for publication which can be 
done practically on a desktop.  Typing a newsletter on a manual 
typewriter for a local club is DTP, as is developing a popular 
international publication for consumer use on a high-end PC or 
workstation.
device driver
These are programs (DOS or Windows) which enable a specific piece 
of hardware to communicate with the operating system.  Without a 
device driver installed and running in active memory, the 
software cannot communicate with the hardware device.  Many 
standard device drivers are included directly with the operating 
system on older operating systems such as DOS and Windows 3.1; 
Windows 95 has its own unique device drivers for virtually every 
part of the hardware including the floppy disks.digital
Any thing or event which is expressible in terms of integers or 
fixed states; i.e. 0's and 1's, on/off.
disk operating system (DOS)
Refers to any such system, not necessarily the IBM-compatible 
DOS', although it is generally used to indicate IBM, Novell or 
Microsoft's general-purpose, low function, disk memory oriented 
operating system.  Has come to be synonymous with MS-DOS, or 
Microsoft DOS, the product that built the Redmond, Washington 
software giant into the world's largest software publisher.
DMF
Data Manager Function : IBM PACS disk/storage resident data 
structures and organizations
Also: Distribution Media Format : a floppy disk format that 
allows 1.44Mb 3.5" disks to be filled with 1.68Mb of data for 
purposes of more efficient distribution.  The floppy disk version 
of Windows 95 uses the DMF format.
Doom, Wolfenstein
Two breakthrough games from shareware games producers ID Software 
(formerly associated with Apogee) which used revolutionary 3-D 
virtual perspectives and unparalleled violence and gore for a 
widely available computer game.  Castle Wolfenstein, known to 
most simply as Wolfenstein, set the standard which Doom surpassed 
and reset, and turned ID into the single most successful 
shareware publishing house in history.  Probably the two most 
popular video games released since Pacman and Donkey Kong, and 
perhaps the most popular ever.  Both have been cited on numerous 
occasions as factors in firings, divorce suits, negligence 
actions and software censorship and content labelling 
discussions.
dot matrix printer
The most common type of personal computer printer until about 
1994.  Dot matrix printers are characterized by a print head made 
up of usually nine or 24 pins laid out in a matrix.  The pressure 
of some or all of these pins on a typewriter-style film ribbon 
makes the impression on the paper and produces the printout.  Dot 
matrix printers are notorious for being slower and much noisier 
than inkjet and laser printers but have the benefits of high 
reliability, low cost, the ability to print multi-part forms, and 
ease of maintenance. It is not uncommon for dot matrix printers 
to be used daily for five years or longer in a clean environment 
and require nothing except the occasional ribbon change.
Dot matrix printers are a type of device known as an impact 
printer because the pins must impact the ribbon onto the paper to 
produce a visible result.  They differ in functionality from 
daisy wheel printers, which create much crisper text, in their 
ability to print graphics.
dot pitch
The amount of space between the dots, or small windows, of 
phosphor at the front of a picture tube.  A .28mm dot pitch means 
that there are .28 millimetres of unused space between each dot 
on the screen.
double-density, high density, DS/DD, DS/HD, SS/DD
The three surviving floppy drive density identifications common 
to IBM-compatible computers, soon to become two since 
single-sided double-density (SS/DD) is almost never used now that 
double-sided drives can be purchased used for as little as $5.00.
The density refers to the amount of data that can be packed onto 
the surface of the disk.  Floppy disks originally started out as 
single-sided, single-density disks since the recording media and 
heads had a tendency to "bleed" onto nearby tracks and could not 
reliably write on both sides of a disk.  Eight-inch floppies 
originally allowed only forty tracks of data; modern 3.5" 
floppies allow up to 82 tracks on both sides of the disk thanks 
to improvements in the precision of disk drives, reduced costs 
for two-head floppy drives and improvements in the magnetic media 
used in manufacturing the disks.
DS/HD stands for high density, which allows up to twenty sectors 
per track over the usual nine or ten on a 3.5" floppy.
The same acronyms are used to describe format and density for 
5.25" disks as well, but the storage capacities differ on these 
disks.
DR-DOS
Digital Research Inc.'s DOS operating system; had some popularity 
in the late 1980s but never gained popularity.  Later purchased 
by Novell and now sold with considerable changes and enhancements 
as Novell DOS.  Infamous for incompatibility problems.
dual inline package, DIP switch
In everyday usage, DIPs are usually thought of collections of 
several tiny on/off switches mounted on a frame that looks like a 
computer chip housing.  They are usually designed to be set once 
to match a device to its host hardware.
Strictly speaking, DIP actually refers to any integrated circuit 
with two sets of connectors on either side of the chip housing, 
whether there are four pins or a hundred and four.  Old-style RAM 
chips are DIPs.  The earliest IBM-compatible CPU's, the 8088 and 
8086 chips, also came packaged as DIP ICs.  DIPs are the common 
centipede-like components most people associate with computer 
chips.emulator, emulation
Emulator is used to refer to any software or hardware which is 
designed to mimic the function of other hardware or software, 
particularly when the emulation is of the "they said it couldn't 
be done" variety.  Emulator usually refers to a program or 
peripheral card which expands the capabilities of a computer to 
encompass other computers or operating systems.  Examples of 
emulators are Mac-in-DOS, a card which allows a Macintosh to 
perform as if it is a 486DX series IBM-compatible; and Executor, 
a PC program that allows IBM-compatibles to run Mac software.  
Emulators based on software generally do not run at top speed; 
emulators based on hardware tend to run faster than the devices 
they are emulating.
Emulation is usually used to refer to the act of mimicking any 
hardware or software function regardless of the difficulty.  For 
example, all 386 and higher PCs are easily capable of using 
onboard memory as expanded memory, but because a separate memory 
card is not being used, expanded memory created with software 
memory managers is referred to as expanded memory emulation .
Emulator is not to be confused with the EMUlator, a digital 
musical sampling instrument used in music and film production.
end user
The person you see when you look in the mirror.  Many industry 
watchers are upset by the use of the term "user" to describe a 
computer owner.  According to some, it connotes aspects of drug 
use, and represents a tendency within the industry to treat the 
consumer as an addict in need of a fix or a better high.
Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA)
The IBM enhanced PC graphics adapter card was the standard for 
several years in the mid to late 1980s.  It allowed 256 colors at 
low resolutions, 16 colors at high resolutions.  Obsolete.  EGA's 
top end is identical to the Microsoft Windows standard VGA 
display resolution of 16 colors at 640x480 pixels.
Hacker slang: "Enhanced Graphics Ain't ", signifying the 
disappointment that EGA lagged far behind comparable display 
resolutions available on other PC platforms.  In spite of the 
complaints, it was EGA that first gave the IBM-compatible a 
serious shot at being a true home entertainment center, not just 
a workhorse.
ergonomics
Strictly speaking, ergonomics is the study of biotechnology.  
Practically, ergonomics relates to anything concerning the 
combination of safety, comfort and productivity of a person in a 
particular environment.  Ergonomics as it concerns computers has 
lately become equated with the effort to stem the rising 
incidence of repetitive strain injury and other afflictions 
associated with long-term intensive use of a computer through the 
use of exercise, posture, furnishings and workplace layout.
Expanded memory (EMS)
Expanded memory is memory which resides outside of conventional 
memory but can be mapped into one or more conventional memory 
areas, using a 64K page "frame" located between the 640K DOS 
limit and the 1Mb "conventional" limit.  This frame moves 32K 
(but more commonly 16K) blocks of memory in and out of 
conventional memory for use by the program, essentially 
"cheating" the system.
Greater flexibility for slow PCs
Expanded memory was designed to allow older 8088 and 8086 PCs to 
make use of more than one megabyte of memory.  Extended memory 
was introduced as a new standard with the 80286 CPU, but EMS 
stuck around due to its popularity and is still used by many 
programs, most notably Lotus 1-2-3 for DOS.
The Expanded Memory Specification
The EMS stands for Expanded Memory Specification.  This 
specification was first set down by a consortium consisting of 
Lotus, Intel and Microsoft and is still referred to as the 
LIM-EMS specification.  Early versions used 16K and 32K page 
frames; the 4.0 spec still in use allows a 64K page frame.
The Enhanced Expanded Memory Specification (EEMS) was refined by 
Ashton-Tate, AST and Quadram to allow more access to memory than 
the original specification, which was limited to 32Mb.
Expanded versus extended memory
EMS memory offers the option of configuring some or all of the 
available memory as additional memory for programs that can make 
use of it; extended memory uses all available system memory but 
is also considerably faster than expanded memory.
 expanded memory manager, Lotus/Intel/Microsoft (LIM), extended 
memory (XMS), page, conventional memory

Extended Graphics Array (XGA)
Video standard developed by IBM as the successor to VGA.  One of 
many graphics standards introduced by IBM which didn't quite make 
it.


extension
Refers to the final characters in a filename after the period.  
DOS and Windows prior to Windows 95 were limited to filenames of 
up to eleven characters, up to eight of which appeared before the 
period and up to three of which appeared after.  The characters 
after the period, or dot, are referred to as the extension and 
are usually used to indicate what the file is used for.
For example, plain text files without special formatting usually 
have .TXT extensions.  Programs have .EXE extensions, and in DOS 
can also have .COM extensions.  File extensions are used as an 
organizational tool, and in Windows to help the operating systems 
automatically load certain types of files into their related 
programs.
Windows 95 no longer limits files to eleven characters but still 
makes use of three-character file extensions for auto-loading 
documents.
extract
Although it can have a number of fairly obvious meanings, it most 
often refers to the process of uncompressing files contained 
within a compressed archive file, such as an individual file in a 
backup tape or disk set, or uncompressing files in a compressed 
archive file obtained from a BBS, online service or Internet 
site.
extremely low frequency electromagnetic radiation (ELF)
Electrical lines pulsing at 45 or 60 cycles per second are an 
example of ELF radiation. also the Earth has its own pulse of 
about six cycles per second.  Used in context of measuring 
radiation and interference in electrical circuits, particularly 
computer monitors and power lines; also in ergonomics and 
workplace safety.
Although there has been considerable debate over whether ELF 
radiation poses any threat to public health and safety, the World 
Health Organization has been quite clear about their position on 
the matter:
     "Exposure to ELF (extremely low frequency) electric fields 
can alter cellular physiological and behavioral events...At 
present, studies serve as a warning that unnecessary exposure to 
electric fields should be avoided.
     "It is recommended that efforts be made to limit exposure, 
particularly for members of the general population, to levels as 
low as can be reasonably achieved."
- Environmental Health Criteria: 35, Extremely Low Frequency 
(ELF) Fields, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1984, pp. 18 and 
88. -facsimile (FAX)
An ancient form of communication in computing terms, traceable to 
1842 when Scottish inventor Alexander Bain developed a machine 
for transmitting simple images over short-distance telephone 
connections.  Facsimile transmission is, as it might seem, 
transmission of a facsimile of the original document over a phone 
line or other networked data connection.
Most modern FAX transfer is done with stand-alone FAX units which 
are essentially baby photocopiers.  They include scanners for 
creating digital images of the documents to be transmitted and 
printing facilities for creating hard copies of the documents 
received.
This trend is expected to be reversed by the end of 1996 as 
virtually all new modems come equipped with facilities for 
sending and receiving FAX and more and more document processing 
is being done on computers rather than by hand or with 
typewriters.
file
A contiguous block of data with a beginning and and end that is 
stored on a disk as a single unit and has an assigned name.
flicker
Caused by a low refresh rate or interlaced screen display, this 
describes the flashing effect created by inexpensive monitors set 
to higher color resolutions than the monitor or video card is 
designed to handle.  A stressor to be avoided.
font
More commonly known to most people as a synonym for typeface, 
which is not strictly true.  Fonts differ from typefaces in that 
they are only single sets of characters.  A font is a graphical 
representation of a character set such as the numbers 0-9 or the 
alphabet.  There are now literally tens of thousands of graphical 
variations on the standard typewriter-style and newspaper-style 
fonts which were virtually ubiquitous for decades, and these can 
be applied to virtually any document on almost all 
graphically-based operating systems.
front end
The hardware or software that acts as a non-processing interface 
to hardware or software which actually does the processing.  A 
banking terminal is an example of a hardware front end.  When 
Windows is used to copy DOS disks, Windows acts as the front end 
for DOS.
glitch
>From the German "glitschen", to slip, via the Yiddish "glitshen", 
to slide or skid.  A sudden interruption in electric service, 
sanity, continuity, or program function.  Sometimes recoverable.  
[Source: The Jargon File 3.0.0]
hack
Two primary meanings in computerdom: to create a quick and dirty 
solution to a problem (i.e.  to "hack together" a program that 
does a specific task) or the act of studying, experimenting with, 
or otherwise learning about a particular piece of software or 
hardware (e.g. " I'll stick with my word processor; I don't have 
the time to hack spreadsheets.)
Capitalized, Hack refers to a dungeons'n'dragons game from the 
late 1970s that became popular on all platforms and as a 
network-playable adventure.
hard disk
Hard disks are the primary long-term high-speed storage devices 
used on PCs.  They are designed to store anywhere from several 
dozen to several thousand times the contents of a floppy disk and 
provide access to data at several times the rate of reading from 
floppies or CDs.  Hard disks are usually hard metal platters in 
hermetically sealed cases.  They use sensitive read/write heads 
similar to the heads on a cassette deck which ride a millionth of 
an inch above the surface of the platter, which is why early hard 
disks were so sensitive to movement.  A single hard disk can 
contain several platters, and most PCs have only one hard disk.  
All modern PCs can support a minimum of two hard disks, four with 
special software.
Archaic: hard drive
heat sink
A hardware component used to cool other hardware components which 
are adversely affected by heat.  A heat sink literally drains 
away excess heat energy by absorbing it and dissipating it into 
the surrounding atmosphere.  Heat sinks are traditionally made of 
conductive materials such as aluminum or cast iron, and usually 
have ribs to assist in dissipating heat.  Heat sinks are most 
often found on computers attached to CPU chips or power 
conversion devices in the power supply's housing.Hewlett Packard (HP)
Manufacturer of a wide range of computer equipment; best known 
for their laser printer products; also refers to the ability of 
certain printers to behave in the same fashion as (emulate) HP 
printers.
HGC/HGA
Hercules Graphics Card or Hercules Graphics Adapter: For many 
years early in IBM-compatible development considered high-end 
graphics.  Allowed early PC's with monochrome monitors to display 
graphics other than text characters and emulate CGA graphics in 
monochrome (with the addition of third-party software).  Hercules 
still manufactures high-end graphics hardware but has little 
consumer presence in recent years.
home page
Strictly speaking the top level, root or index page of a World 
Wide Web site, generally the page with the shortest URL, as in 
"You can find the strawberry jam recipe at 
http://chef.com/food/jams.html , but I recommend you browse the 
home page first at http://chef.com to get an idea of everything 
they have on the site".  Home pages usually have the file name 
index.html .
hotspot
A "clickable" area of text or graphics.  Hotspot refers to an 
area of text, or part or all of an image, which, when selected by 
an input device such as a mouse, allows the user to move to 
another part of a document or program.  The highlighted "" words 
in this help tool are hotspots.  So are the abbreviations and 
terms used in the main screen of the lexicon.
hue, shade, tone
Hue refers to the position of a color in the visible spectrum of 
light, as opposed to shades and tones of color which are 
variations in the intensity of a given color.  Yellow and red are 
hues, whereas pink and crimson are shades of red.  Shade refers 
to the amount of black in a given color; tone refers to the 
amount of white light or reflected white light.
Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP)
The specification for connecting World-Wide Web resources to each 
other and to users via the Internet.
IBM (extended topic)
IBM is an acronym for International Business Machines , the most 
venerable name in computing and the driving force behind the 
development of personal computing in the late 1970s and early 
1980s.  They also manufacture larger computer systems for 
business and institutional use and publish software, including 
their own brand of DOS, OS/2 (a competitive operating system with 
Windows), and more specialized applications for business and 
institutional markets.
It is IBM who are responsible for the IBM-compatible 
specification being the standard used by more than 80 percent of 
all computers in existence today.  When they first released the 
IBM PC, they chose to make the specifications for this computer 
available - and usable without royalty - to all interested 
parties, a move that surprised and pleased industry-watchers.  It 
was partly a way of opening the door for other manufacturers to 
build hardware which could be added to the PC, but many 
manufacturers chose to build their own hardware.  IBM stuck to 
their guns and did the same with the release of the XT and 
AT-class computers, and the industry followed suit.  Apple, on 
the other hand, chose to keep the specification for the Macintosh 
to themselves and in a very short time the low cost of IBM 
"clone" computers insured that the IBM-compatible/DOS computer 
would be the personal computing standard for at least a decade.
IBM survived partly on the strength of its name but more on the 
quality of their product, which was usually higher than most 
competitors'.  That reputation sagged with the release of several 
less than ideal products (e.g. IBM PC/jr and PS/2) and the 
adherence to software and hardware standards the rest of the 
industry chose not to follow (e.g. OS/2 and MicroChannel 
Architecture).  Today IBM is less dependent for revenues on 
consumer-level products than for their industrial and 
institutional products, although that has changed somewhat with 
their 1995 acquisition of Lotus.
 IBM PC/XT, IBM PC/AT, IBM-compatible, clone, Apple, Macintosh, 
MicroChannel Architecture, Lotus

IBM-compatible
One of the most over-used and under-comprehended terms in 
computing.  Strictly speaking, IBM-compatible means compatible 
with the specifications laid down by IBM for a specific model of 
computer, usually the IBM PC-AT series specification upon which 
DOS and Windows PCs are based.
Unfortunately, when it comes to hardware in particular, 
compatibility with IBM specifications does not necessarily mean 
the hardware will be compatible with other hardware which also 
claims to be IBM-compatible.  The specification does not allow 
for the possibility that separate pieces of hardware compatible 
with the AT will not be compatible with each other.
IBM-compatible is also used to refer to software designed to run 
on an AT-class machine or better, but what it usually means in 
this context is that it will run on a machine capable of running 
MS-DOS (usually version 3.1 or higher), whether it meets the AT 
specification or not.
icon
Something that represents something else.  In Windows and other 
graphical operating systems, including the World Wide Web, icons 
are generally small graphical objects linked to programs, 
documents or specific functions which can be loaded, started, 
fetched or otherwise processed by clicking or double-clicking on 
the graphical image.import
To bring data created with one type of software into another type 
of software.  A very common method of combining the results of 
two programs.  For example, data created with one database 
program can be added to a different database using different 
software by importing it.  Different file types can also be 
imported, for example a graphical object can be imported into a 
word processing document for addition to the formatted text.
inkjet (Bubblejet) printer
Inkjet refers to a type of printer that uses fine sprays of 
precisely-directed liquid ink to print, first marketed at a 
reasonable consumer price by Hewlett Packard and used first in 
their ThinkJet and and later the enormously popular DeskJet 
printers.  Bubblejet refers to Canon's inkjet technology, which 
is virtually identical in function.  Inkjet printers are much 
quieter than dot matrix and daisy wheel printers, cost much less 
than laser printers, and have a print quality which is 
correspondingly between the two.  Unfortunately, the ink 
cartridges are expensive and require frequent replacement, making 
inkjet printers the costliest per-page investment and a poor 
choice for high volume printing.


integrate
The process of getting things to live, work and cooperate with 
each other.  A critical term in all facets of computing.  
Integrated circuits are components housed in the same casing 
designed to function as a discreet circuit.  Integration of 
software and hardware is the process of getting it to communicate 
with other software and hardware in the system.
Due to the complexity of modern hardware and software, true 
integration is viewed by most in the industry as either a myth or 
an ideal to be strived for, not a reality.
Intel
American high-tech firm responsible for developing most of the 
most-used microprocessors in PCs for more than a decade.  
Designed and developed the first 8088, 8086 and 80186 through 
80486 microprocessor chips as well as the Pentium chip.
interactive
Refers to software that responds to user input with actions 
appropriate to the response.  For example, answering a 
questionnaire is not an interactive activity, but answering a 
questionnaire whose questions change depending on the answers you 
give would be interactive.  This help tool, because it responds 
to your requests for information and does not operate 
independently of your requests, is interactive software.
interface
The connection between the user and the used; generally refers to 
software and/or hardware designed to prompt a user for input and 
recognize input.  Also, the act of making such a connection.
Interfaces are also known as front ends, as opposed to back end 
which usually refers to the operating system and/or the hardware.
interlacing
Interlacing refers to the way a monitor displays data on the 
screen.  An interlaced display refreshes the screen in two 
passes, drawing only every other line in each pass.  This results 
in a flickering effect.  Non-interlaced monitors draw the entire 
screen in each pass, resulting in less visible flicker...but only 
if the monitor's refresh rate is high enough.
Non-interlaced refers to a display or a display mode which writes 
the whole screen in one pass.
Interlacing is also used with certain graphics formats, in 
particular the GIF format, to allow previewing of large or 
memory-intensive graphics while they load.  Interlaced graphics 
may require as many as six passes to fully display on the screen.
jaggies
The "stairstep effect" shown by graphical objects when sloped 
lines or curves are shown on a pixel-mapped display.  (Most 
computer monitors are pixel-mapped.) Also refers to a similar 
effect displayed by bitmapped graphics.  particularly after they 
have been resized or stretched in one direction.
joystick
A joystick is a an input device.  The actual control is a stick, 
rod or handle designed to control two devices called 
potentiometers at the same time.  The actual controls in a 
joystick are like twin volume controls or balance controls on a 
stereo system, and function in exactly the same way.  Joysticks 
are usually spring-loaded so that the "balance" always returns to 
zero when the stick is released.jumper (shunt)
A small metal clip with a plastic sheath, usually about 
three-sixteenths of an inch square, designed to connect two pins 
on a circuit board.  The proper term is shunt, but jumper has 
become the accepted term for this device.  They are also known as 
Berg post jumpers or shorting posts.
laptop, notebook, subnotebook
These terms have absolutely nothing to do with a computer's 
power, but instead concern size alone, and even then they are 
fuzzy at best.  Laptop refers to a portable computer with a 
rechargeable onboard power supply which can be carried relatively 
easily.  Laptops can be the size of a briefcase.  Notebook is 
generally used to refer to a computer that meets the above 
criteria and fits easily within a briefcase.  Subnotebook is 
smaller still, usually referring to a computer that takes up the 
same or less room as a 1-1/2" three-ring binder.
Laser printers (extended topic)
Laser printers offer the highest quality of printout of all 
consumer-level PC printers, and are now affordable enough to make 
them viable as first family printers.
These printers function essentially like photocopiers scanners.  
The computer tells the printer the layout of the ink on the page, 
and the printer responds by reproducing the image on paper.  
Lasers do not use ink, but a dry powdered substance called toner 
which is also used by photocopiers.  This toner is dispensed from 
the toner cartridge onto a small rotating drum, where it has a 
positive electrostatic charge.  The laser uses the instructions 
given by the computer to fire onto the drum, discharging the dry 
toner onto the paper.  This deposited toner is then bonded, or 
fused, to the paper with a second roller which operates at very 
high temperatures.  Once the toner dries the image is smudge-free 
and extremely sharp, especially if the paper is designed 
specifically for photocopiers or laser printers.  There are also 
special, costlier papers for making ultra-sharp printouts which 
really show off the printer's precision.
Laser printers offer the twin benefits of having the best print 
quality and the lowest cost per page, with the disadvantages of 
having a relatively high initial cost and a need for fairly 
regular maintenance.  Depending on the print quality desired, 
type of connection used (parallel is preferred over serial), and 
amount of memory required by the printout, lasers are also the 
fastest of the common types of PC printers.
 dot matrix printer, inkjet printer, daisy wheel printer, toner, 
resolution

launch
Synonym for start or run.  Launching an application or document 
is the same as running it.
LHArc
LHArc: Lempel-Ziv/Huffman Archiving.  This is a type of data 
compression software designed for archiving data that needs to be 
restored to perfect original condition in future, and uses two 
separate compression schemes to achieve maximum reduction of file 
sizes.  No longer in popular private use; still extensively used 
in software development as a space-saving tool.
license
In computing, the terms and restrictions assigned to a user of a 
given piece of software.  The license to use a book, recording or 
piece of software -- not the words, music or software itself -- 
is what is purchased by the consumer.  This is an important 
distinction, and it is equally important to note that most 
software licenses are limited and may be revoked at any time by 
the copyright holder whether the person is in possession of a 
purchased copy of the software or not.
light-emitting diode (LED)
A device which gives off visible light when current passes 
through it.  Once a standard readout device on electronic and 
computer equipment; now used only when actual light is needed or 
desirable.  Most LED operations designed to display characters 
(segmented displays) now use LCDs.
liquid crystal display (LCD)
The successor to the LED, a device for displaying variable 
information in a fixed space.  LCDs function by the application 
of electrical current to a crystalline material suspended in a 
film of other transparent material.  The crystal itself turns 
from being transparent in comparison to the medium in which it is 
contained to being visible when electrical current is applied.  
LCDs can be either monochrome, as is the case with most digital 
watches; or full-color, as is the case with newer laptop screens.
LCDs are made from different types of materials and use different 
sources of illumination depending on the circumstances in which 
they are used.  Most laptops use light sources located behind the 
screen.
Grids of thousands of LCDs on a single panel are used for the 
displays in laptop and notebook computers.  Basic LCD displays 
work on a simple on/off switching procedure and these are known 
as passive matrix displays, as opposed to active matrix which 
uses powered transistors to control the segments and refresh the 
screen more frequently, allowing for crisper animation and better 
mouse visibility.
Lotus
American software giant best known for making "spreadsheet" part 
of the popular lexicon through the enormous sales of its 1-2-3 
spreadsheet; now part of IBM.  Also known for other products 
including Ami Pro and Notes.Macintosh
Apple's long-lived GUI-based personal computer built around 
Motorola's 68000-series CPU chip and the only serious contender 
to IBM-compatible market supremacy for nearly a decade.  
Introduced in the mid-1980s as an alternative to the IBM 
PC-compatible, the Mac featured high-resolution graphics, 
integrated component structure, a 3.5" floppy disk drive as 
standard equipment, a mouse-driven interface, and a wide range of 
other enhancements and alternatives to the PC and 
last-of-the-line CP/M computers of the day.
Although many people believe the Mac is inferior both in value 
and performance to the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST as a PC 
implementation of the Motorola 68000-series CPU, Apple's 
marketing has managed to keep the Mac at the forefront of 
GUI-based computers, and its ease of use and simple maintenance 
have insured it an ongoing place in the PC market.  These last 
two features have made it especially popular with educational 
institutions.
mainframe
Term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central 
processor unit or "main frame" of a large computer.  After the 
emergence of smaller `minicomputer' designs in the early 1970s, 
the traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe 
computers" and eventually just as mainframes.  The term carries 
the connotation of a machine designed for batch rather than 
interactive use, though possibly with an interactive timesharing 
operating system retrofitted onto it; it is especially used of 
machines built by IBM, Unisys, and the other great dinosaurs 
surviving from computing's Stone Age.  [Source: The Jargon File 
3.0.0]
megabyte (Mb)
1,024,000 bytes of computer data.  A megabyte is greater than a 
million bytes because memory in blocks of 1,000 bytes or higher 
are measured in multiples of 1,024.  This is done because 1,024 
is an exponent of two, which makes more computer sense and is 
easier to work with than 1,000 which is an exponent of 10.
megahertz (MHz)
One million cycles (Hertz) per second.
memory
A widely misunderstood and misused term with novices.  Memory, 
strictly speaking, is any type of computer data storage, 
permanent or temporary, including RAM, disks and tapes.  
Practically speaking, however, disks and tapes are almost never 
referred to in terms of memory, but instead are referred to in 
terms of their storage capacity .  This distinction prevents a 
lot of confusion, since memory is usually used to refer to the 
hardware's physical capacity for running programs and processing 
data at normal computing speeds.  Chip memory is thousands of 
times faster than storage memory.
To make matters even more confusing, virtual memory allows hard 
disks and other storage media to be used as slow forms of memory.
In short, memory refers to the chips on the system that store or 
process data, not to disks and other media designed primarily for 
storage.
microprocessor
A generic term that usually refers to a large-scale integrated 
circuit; a hardware component consisting of multiple transistors 
or switches miniaturized to allow several dozen to several 
million components to fit within a single housing, which includes 
instructions for processing data.
Microsoft (MS)
Microsoft, a software publishing firm headquartered in the US and 
led by Bill Gates III.  Developers of MS-DOS and Windows as well 
as many consumer and business-level software products in wide if 
not nearly universal use.  Responsible for more than 80 percent 
of the IBM-compatible operating system market.
Also (ms): abbreviation for manuscript.


mode, MODE.COM
State or attitude.  Concerning computers, the state or 
configuration of a piece of hardware or software (e.g. "Windows 
usually boots in enhanced mode to provide access to its 
multitasking features, but you can also use standard mode, which 
will get a single task done faster.") As hacker slang, the 
current state of mind or attitude of the individual (e.g. "I've 
been up all night taking care of a problem I didn't cause, so be 
warned: I'm in vengeance mode right now.")
MODE.COM is a DOS program designed to set many device parameters, 
including keyboard layout and international alphabets, printer 
and serial port settings.
monochrome
Having only one color.  Indicates that a program or computer 
monitor can only display one color: with monitors, usually white, 
orange, amber or green.motherboard
The main circuit board on a computer which houses the CPU and to 
which all other peripheral devices used by the computer must be 
connected.
Motion Pictures Experts Group (MPEG)
Known mainly to computer users as the body responsible for 
developing the MPEG compression standard used for full motion 
video on computers.  This compression scheme usually requires 
hardware in order to display video at a reasonable resolution and 
in full-screen mode as opposed to a small window, but it is 
usable on most 486-plus computers for small animations and 
videos.
MPEG has also developed data compression schemes for audio as 
well, which allow near-CD-quality audio in as little as 1/20 the 
space normally required.  This allows artists to offer 
full-length songs in stereo for download on bulletin boards and 
the Internet in files just a few megabytes in size, instead of 
the dozens of megabytes required for full CD audio quality.  
MPEG-encoded audio files usually have the MP2 extension.
MPEG is expected to be the standard for computer video for the 
next several years.
Norton, Peter Norton
Peter Norton is legendary as the developer of Norton Utilities, 
the most popular PC utilities package in history, now marketed by 
Symantec.  Other extremely popular products bearing Norton's name 
are Norton Commander, a much-loved DOS command shell; Norton 
Desktop, a favorite Windows utility package and interface 
replacement; and Norton Navigator, a series of extensions for 
Windows 95.  Norton Utilities are considered to be the most 
useful and essential utilities package in existence for serious 
PC tinkerers.
"Norton" products are published by Symantec, which in 1994 merged 
with Central Point software, their closest competitor.
Novell, Novell Netware
American software giant responsible for the world's most popular 
Local Area Networking software for the DOS operating system, 
which is known as Netware.  Also involved in consumer-level 
marketing as publishers of Novell DOS and now as the owners of 
WordPerfect.
null modem cable, nullmodem
A "modem-eliminator adapter", an inexpensive cable designed to 
connect two computers via their serial ports, occasionally used 
for file transfers but more often used for low-speed networking 
via serial ports.
operating system (OS)
Operating systems are the programs or collections of programs 
which act as translators between a computer's processing chips 
and programs designed to run on them. They are pretty useless on 
their own, like an empty house with no furniture. They only 
become useful when other programs apply them to specific tasks.
Examples of operating systems are DOS, Windows, OS/2, UNIX and 
Macintosh's System/Finder.  Because of the way they are packaged, 
many people confuse operating systems themselves and operating 
system packages .  Windows' Notepad and Paintbrush are not part 
of the operating system, but rather are bundled programs designed 
to be used with it.
Operating System/2 (OS/2, Warp)
IBM's successor to MS-DOS and Windows, originally a joint project 
between Microsoft and IBM.  Microsoft later decided to develop 
Windows as an operating system in its own right.  Said by 
hardcore hackers to be a vastly superior operating system to 
Windows, both OS/2 2.1 and OS/2 3.0 (also known as Warp) suffered 
from an inability to walk novice users through elementary tasks 
at even Windows' poor level, and thus never became the serious 
challengers to Windows which industry watchers had hoped.
OS/2 is a superb platform for many memory- and 
processor-intensive applications; a bust as a consumer-level 
operating system.  Another victim of Betamax syndrome; often 
derogatorily referred to by ardent Windows fans as "half the 
operating system".
overlay
Refers to part of a DOS program that resides in a separate file 
from the main program file and is loaded into memory as needed 
for its functions.  Overlays are used to get around DOS' 640K 
memory limit and allow DOS programs to perform functions or 
groups of functions which would otherwise require more than the 
maximum available amount of DOS memory.
pack, unpack
These are usually used as slang terms for archive and unarchive 
which have fallen into common usage.  Packing refers to 
processing a file or set of files using data compression or 
backup software for the purpose of archiving, copying or 
transmission.  Unpacking, naturally, refers to the process of 
extracting the compressed data.
Not to be confused with PAK.EXE , file compression software from 
NoGate Consulting; or PKPAK.EXE/PKUNPAK.EXE , programs by PKWARE 
which are designed to process specific types of compressed 
archives.parameter, argument
Refers to a legal value used by a specific piece of software or 
hardware, but it is also used to refer to commands designed for 
inputting these values.  For example, Windows Help offers several 
optional commands for loading helpfiles.  The command winhelp -i 
port pclex.hlp will take you directly to the definition for 
"port", because that's how the software was created.  However, 
"-i" is a command, not a parameter, since it tells WINHELP.EXE to 
jump to a specific topic.  The parameters are "port", the topic; 
and "pclex.hlp", the specific helpfile containing that topic.
Argument and parameter are often used interchangeably, although 
strictly speaking an argument is a variable command that is fixed 
while a parameter is considered to have a potential range of 
values.  Arguments also refer to commands issued in actual 
programming which have one-way, fixed values.
In casual conversation, parameter and argument are both often 
used to refer to all additional commands added to a program 
launch command.  While this is not technically correct, as shown 
above, it is still very common.
paste
Refers to working with the clipboard.  Data copied or cut from 
one file is placed into another by pasting from the clipboard.
patch
Either a fix for an existing problem, a file used to replace code 
in an existing product for purposes of fixing bugs or updating 
features, or the act of fixing a bug.
Path types (extended topic)
A path is the "street address" of a file or directory, and 
specifies the route that must be taken through the disk's 
directory structure to get to it.  It functions like a street 
address in reverse, with the "country" name (drive) first and the 
street number (name of the specified file or directory) last.  
Paths are usually referred to one of four ways: full path, 
directory path, absolute path and relative path.  Refer to the 
extended topic on path types. for more information on path syntax 
for DOS and Windows.
There are four main methods of describing paths in DOS and 
Windows: full path, directory path, absolute path and relative 
path.
Full path: the complete path of a file.  Includes all directories 
above the file and the full name of the target file.  For 
example:
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM.USER.EXE
  is the path to a file used by Windows called USER.EXE .
Directory path: the complete path of a file or directory but 
without the name of the file itself.  Directory paths are usually 
used to point to a directory where files are to be saved or where 
a specific file or group of files may be found.  For example, 
Windows system files are usually located in the directory path:
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM
Under standard DOS and Windows syntax, a directory path does not 
always have to include the trailing slash, although the rules 
regarding this syntax vary from program to program.
Absolute path and relative path: used in relation to the 
directory in which the user is working.  Absolute path includes 
the full path or directory path including the drive letter.  For 
example:
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM\USER.EXE
 is the absolute path for the file USER.EXE regardless of the 
current working directory.  However, if the user is currently in 
the C:\DOS directory, the relative path would be written as an 
"up-and-over" path, like so:
...\WINDOWS\SYSTEM\USER.EXE
The two dots here stand for "up one level of directories".

PGA
Pin grid array , an arrangement used for contact pins on many 
newer CPU chips (80386 and up) in which the pins on the chip are 
laid out in a grid that looks a little like a bed of nails.  This 
arrangement allows for easier connection of chips that need a 
large number of contact points with the circuit board.
Also: Professional Graphics Adapter : a graphics hardware and 
software standard introduced by IBM in 1984 and designed for 
high-end desktop publishing, graphics and CAD work, it was so 
advanced the graphics card used a more powerful processor than 
the computer itself.  The first 256-color standard, but it was so 
expensive that it was never widely accepted.
piracy
Piracy is the act of making illegal or unlicensed copies of a 
piece of software in violation of the author or publisher's 
copyright.  Technically in the US it is a civil matter below a 
certain dollar value (generally believed to be around $2,000).  
Piracy is a very serious issue with publishers, who believe 
billions are lost each year to unlicensed use of software.  In an 
attempt to minimize the illegal use of software, many publishers 
have implemented copy protection schemes at one time or another, 
but this has largely gone by the wayside due to the inconvenience 
to authorized users.
Many industry watchers believe a large part of the industry 
outcry over the alleged billions lost to piracy is a scare 
tactic, as those who routinely pirate software generally would 
not pay, or be able to pay, for their unauthorized copies; and 
those who do not understand the concept of illegal use of 
software are generally willing to pay for their software once 
they understand the concept of licensing.
pixel (pel)
A defined area on a graphic display (computer monitor).  Most 
computer graphics are measured in terms of their pixel size, 
which varies depending on the size and type of the monitor 
display.  The standard sizes for IBM-compatible, Macintosh, and 
high-resolution Atari and Amiga displays are 480 pixels in height 
by 640 pixels in width.  Not to be confused with dot , which is 
an area on a computer screen itself a single pixel of data can 
cover several dots .
PKZIP (extended topic)
Believed by many to be the single most common IBM-compatible 
software program in use in the world (excluding programs included 
as part of operating systems such as DOS and Windows).  Archiving 
software designed to combine and compress files for ease of 
storage and transmission.
PKZIP is the brainchild of Phil Katz, an American programmer.  He 
began his career by developing an archiving and unarchiving 
program with superior performance to the then market leader, SEA 
(Systems Enhancement Associates) ARC.  He named the program 
PKARC, but lost a suit with SEA and thus the right to use the 
name ARC.  He subsequently renamed the program to PKPAK, and 
while ARC software is now obsolete, PKUNPAK is still in wide use 
for processing the tens of millions of ARC-compressed files still 
in existence.
Katz later refined the ARC compresson routines into his own 
unique compression scheme known as PKZIP.  Its speed, efficiency 
and versatility soon made it the clear market leader.  PKZIP's 
supremacy was threatened for a brief time in the early 1990s by 
rival upstart ARJ, created by Robert K. Jung, and the free LHA 
program created by Haruyasu Yoshizaki.  Both offered superior 
compression results until the 1993 release of PKZIP version 2.x, 
at which time Katz' software regained  and at this writing 
retains  supremacy in the world of IBM-compatible file 
compression.

program
A set of binary instructions executed by a computer for a given 
purpose, also the act of creating a set of binary instructions 
for execution.  Alternatively, from the Jargon File: "A magic 
spell cast over a computer allowing it to turn one's input into 
error messages." As opposed to data, which is the raw material 
for programs to mangle and destroy.public domain (PD)
Refers to a work whose copyright has either expired over time or 
been released to the public by the copyright holder.  Property of 
the public; freely usable in any otherwise legal form.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
The basic term for the chip memory used on all computers for 
running programs.  The "random" comes from the fact that RAM 
chips are designed to be accessed at any point by the CPU with 
virtually the same amount of speed.  The 500,000th bit of a one 
megabit chip can be accessed just about as quickly as the first 
bit.  RAM differs from ROM (read-only memory) in that RAM can be 
erased and rewritten thousands of times a second whereas data in 
ROM is permanent.
readme, README files
According to many veteran computer users, these files are so 
named because people won't read them.  These are text files 
containing important information either included with a software 
package or left in the root directory of an Internet FTP site for 
the benefit of users.  Not intended to be ignored or chuckled 
at but to be read.   In the case of shareware and freeware 
software, the README may be the only documentation available for 
the program.


repetitive strain injury (RSI)
Exactly what it would appear to be: injury which occurs as a 
result of repeated strain to the same tissues (bones, muscle, 
skin, etc.).  RSI is used specifically in terms of computing 
because of the high risk of RSI faced by those who work with 
computers on a daily basis.  The simple act of typing on a 
standard QWERTY keyboard places strain on the hands and wrists, 
which is worsened by improper wrist, elbow and shoulder support.
The result of long-term repeated strain is injury to the wrists, 
hands or shoulders, and there are many varieties of RSI suffered 
by typists and computer operators.  It is believed the most 
common is tendosynovitis, inflammation of tendons in the wrist 
which results in pain in the hands and forearms.  Less common, 
but far more publicized, is the crippler carpal tunnel syndrome, 
in which actual physical damage has been done to the wrist.
RSI's can be avoided or reduced in severity through the use of 
proper typing and mouse posture, supports to the hands, wrists 
and shoulders, frequent breaks, and according to recent reports, 
vitamin B6 as a treatment for inflamed nerve endings.
resolution
Resolution in computing terms is a measure of clarity and 
sharpness, and is applied to both printers and video displays.  
The two types of hardware use very different methods of measuring 
resolution; see the individual definitions for details.
routine
A routine is a sequence of instructions issued by a program with 
a beginning, a middle, and an end, that does not necessarily need 
the rest of the program to function.  For example, the display of 
this topic by Windows Help is a routine, and it could be 
accomplished as a separate, much simpler program if it was all 
that was necessary for the program.  Most usable software is 
composed of groups of routines, which are also referred to as 
subroutines.
screen saver, screen blanker
A piece of software designed to prolong the useful life of a 
computer monitor by monitoring computer activity and altering the 
display when no activity is detected for a period of time.  
Screen savers usually monitor mouse and keyboard but can also be 
configured to watch printer and modem as well.
The most elementary form of screen saver is a screen blanker, 
which simply replaces the image on the screen with a blank screen 
until activity at the monitored devices is detected.  Screen 
savers can be extremely sophisticated, and some, such as Razzle 
Dazzle and After Dark, have become popular "toy" programs in 
their own right.
Screen savers prolong monitor life by preventing fixed objects on 
a screen, such as a window which stays in a fixed position for a 
long period of time each day, from "burning into" the phosphor at 
the front of the monitor until the image becomes a permanent part 
of the display.  This effect can be seen most vividly on old 
coin-operated video game units, but the greenish color on older 
television sets is also a result of burn-in.
script
Series of instructions, usually text, used to control the 
processing of data by an application; usually refers to 
user-generated instruction sets.  AUTOEXEC.BAT and WIN.INI are 
examples of scripts.  Macros are also referred to as scripts, 
although not all macros require scripted text files in order to 
function.
Scripting is also a term used to refer to programming in 
languages such as PERL or BASIC that use interpreters to process 
instructions rather than building compiled binary executables.  
Many telecommunications programs include their own scripting 
languages.
sector
A sector is a fraction of a track, and the smallest physical 
measurement of disk usage.
All files are assigned specific sectors on which they can store 
their data, and while a file can share part of a track with 
another file, it cannot share free space in a sector.  While 
tracks are laid out on a disk like rings on a cut tree trunk, 
sectors are laid out like sections of a track, somewhat similar 
to divisions on a clock face.  The standard size for sectors on 
floppy disks is 512 bytes, or an area one ninth of one of the 
eighty tracks on a 1.44Mb floppy.  Most hard disks have sector 
sizes of 2,048 bytes, but this size can vary depending on the 
type of formatting and data access used.
Sector can also refer to a division of a given area, such as a 
part of a playing field or three-dimensional representation, and 
the sector is usually represented by its x , y and (3D only) z 
coordinates.self-extracting archive (SFX)
A compressed archive which has been specially processed to turn 
it into a runnable program.  The procedure adds a small amount of 
code to the start of the archive file so that it can be extracted 
and used by the end user without the need for a local copy of the 
necessary decompression software.
Long shunned in telecommunications because of the ease with which 
viri and trojan horses could be attached to the executable code, 
SFX's are rapidly becoming the preferred form for distribution of 
software via Internet, and particularly for Microsoft Windows, 
because of the ease of use of this particular type of file.
shareware
A method of software distribution developed in the early 1980s as 
a means of allowing free distribution of commercial-quality 
software on BBS', online services and via low-cost disk sales 
which allows the author to still be paid for their work.
Shareware originally meant any software offered expressly to be 
shared between users but has since become a term synonymous with 
try-before-you-buy.  The idea is to allow the user a free trial 
period of the software (usually 30 days) before requiring that 
payment be made for the software if it is kept.
Shareware typically offers bonuses to those who pay to register a 
license for the software, since it is traditional not to cripple 
try-before-you-buy in any fashion, and without an incentive to 
purchase most people will not register the software.  This help 
tool was originally shareware.
spreadsheet
Spreadsheet refers either to a piece of software designed to 
allow for virtual viewing of data, usually numerical or 
mathematical.  The term can also refer to a table of data created 
with such software, although the term worksheet is used here 
instead so as not to confuse the software and the data it 
creates.
Spreadsheets derive their name from the fact that the visible 
"sheet" of information can spread beyond the screen boundaries of 
the computer or terminal on which the data is viewed.  
Spreadsheet tables might have only five visible columns or rows 
onscreen but have several dozen more spread to the right past the 
visible boundary of the monitor, and these are accessed by 
shifting the view of the spreadsheet to the desired columns and 
rows.
The most common application for spreadsheets is the organization 
of financial data, although they can be used for statistical 
analysis of virtually any kind of numerical data.  Modern 
spreadsheets also often contain databasing and word processing 
features.  These are not technically part of the spreadsheet 
itself, but merely extensions to it.
Stacker
Prior to Microsoft's MS-DOS 6.0 release, which included 
Doublespace disk compression software, Stacker was the most 
widely used disk compression software on the IBM-compatible.  
Developed by STAC Electronics, Stacker has featured superior 
compression, speed and reliability to all competing products for 
several years.
Trivia
Industry-watchers widely credit STAC for Microsoft having to 
release several updates to MS-DOS 6.0.  Microsoft left serious, 
data-destroying bugs in the first version of Doublespace and in 
1994 were successfully sued by STAC who claimed that Doublespace 
violated STAC's copyright.  Microsoft denies all such claims, of 
course.
Super VGA (SVGA)
Consumer graphics display standard for the mid-1990s.  Allows 
color depth higher than the 256,000 color maximum provided by VGA 
and a screen resolution of 800x600 pixels (the VGA standard is 
640x480).
system clock
A calibrated quartz crystal used as the computer's internal 
timing device.  Depending on the shape of the crystal, it 
vibrates at a constant rate with the application of electricity 
providing a stable pulse that the system uses to time various 
functions.  The speed of a system clock is measured in megacycles 
or megaHertz, and this speed is usually used as the rating speed 
for the CPU on 386's and higher (e.g. a 486DX-33MHz uses a 33MHz. 
system clock)
SYSTEM.DAT, USER.DAT
Two critical new system files used by Windows 95 to store a wide 
range of information.  Collectively they are known as the 
registry.  Most of the information contained here was formerly 
contained in the WIN.INI and SYSTEM.INI files used by Windows 
3.11 and earlier.  These files are so important that they should 
be backed up daily by anyone who makes frequent changes to their 
system, as virtually every new Windows 95 program makes some kind 
of change to these files, and personalized system settings are 
also stored here.
tape backup unit
A peripheral device for archiving data in a tape format.  Tape 
backup units can either be built-in or external units which use 
tape cartridges a little smaller than an audio cassette to create 
backup copies usually of hard disk data.  These units were 
usually reserved for business use due to their high cost but 
around 1994 costs came down to the point where a large percentage 
of home computers now have tape backup.
These devices have capacities ranging from 20Mb (older style) to 
over 500Mb, and are the most cost-effective archive storage 
method in use today for the average computer owner.  They have 
one drawback: speed.  Copying and retrieving backup data on tape 
is a slow process.
task
Geekspeak for "chore".  Each program or process within a program 
is represented to the operating system as a task to be performed, 
hence "multitasking" and "task switching".  A single Windows 
application can have several tasks running at once; most DOS 
applications only have one.
To see which tasks are running at any given moment within 
Windows, press and hold the Ctrl key and tap Esc.  A program 
called Task Manager will pop up.  Unfortunately this will not 
give you a true picture of the tasks running within Windows, 
since many applications run certain tasks hidden from the 
operator. 
In Windows 95, Task Manager is called with Ctrl+Alt+Delete, which 
is not a key combination to be used with Windows or DOS, since it 
may reboot the computer.task switching
Often confused with multitasking.  Task switching is the ability 
of an operating system to allow more than one application in 
memory at the same time and permit the operator to switch between 
them.  It is not multitasking, although the line is a very thin 
one.  For example, Windows 3.0 allowed the user to have many 
programs in memory at once and switch between them at will, but 
it did not permit more than one program to perform operations.
Windows 3.1 is allegedly a multitasking operating system, but 
since it assigns processor time to one application at a time in 
tiny slices, technically it is still a task switching operating 
system; it only looks like true multitasking because the 
switching happens so rapidly.
terminate-stay resident (TSR)
A personal computer program designed to be run once which then 
remains in memory for the use of other programs; this permits its 
features to be accessed without the need for individual programs 
to duplicate the functions of this program.  TSR's are designed 
both to eliminate the need for extra code in other programs and 
to improve or augment the performance of existing programs.
text editor
A program designed for the creation or modification of text-only 
(non-binary) datafiles.
text file, ASCII file
Generally speaking, a file containing readable text with only the 
standard typewriter characters and no special characters or 
formatting, although it can loosely refer to files which contain 
IBM graphical characters such as bars and line drawing symbols.  
Such files are also referred to as ASCII files.
trackball
This device is an alternative input device to the mouse which 
functions essentially in the same way.  Trackballs are used where 
desk space is not sufficient for the use of a mouse, especially 
with laptops and notebooks, where the user may have difficulty 
moving the wrists due to injury or other constraints (smaller 
trackballs can be held in the hand and do not need a flat 
surface), or where there is an ergonomic need for an alternative 
input device, such as in the case of repetitive strain injury.
trojan horse
A computer program which carries within itself a means to allow 
the creator of the program access to the system using it.
upgrade, update
These two terms are widely misused by consumers.  Upgrade 
generally refers to a major improvement or major change (as many 
users discover, upgrades are not always improvements) in a piece 
of hardware or software.  Update usually refers to an improvement 
designed to fix or patch a bug or to accommodate changes in 
software or hardware which the particular product is frequently 
used with.  For example, Windows 95 is an upgrade over Windows 
3.1, but Windows 95 is only an update to the Windows 95 beta test 
version which had been available for over a year before Win95's 
release.
US Robotics
The world's most successful modem manufacturers since the late 
1980s.  Known as manufacturers of high quality modems at 
reasonable consumer-level prices, their Sportster model has been 
the single largest-selling line of modems in history.  Also 
famous for the notorious HST protocol and for their higher-end 
Courier modems.  Loved by users and servicepeople alike for their 
ease of use, reliability and overall simplicity of installation; 
hated for their tendency to develop new high-speed data 
transmission standards that don't become adopted industry-wide 
and limit the compatibility of their hardware.


utility
Usually used to distinguish a type of program from an 
application.  Utilities are usually said to perform functions 
related to the maintenance of hardware and data rather than 
direct data manipulation.  Utility can also be used to refer to 
any program which alters data in files but does not necessarily 
create new, usable data, or which is designed for the purpose of 
maintenance and/or tuning of the computer.  A fuzzy term with no 
precise meaning.UUE/UUD (uucode/uuencoding/uudecoding)
A method of encoding binary (non-text) files into a format using 
standard characters used in text messages and a fixed line length 
of 62 characters to enable transmission of binary data on 
networks such as email or USENET which do not normally permit 
transmission of non-text data.  Frequently used to post binary 
files to newsgroups.
version, revision
Version and revision are used interchangeably to describe the 
state of a given piece of technology, and version numbers are the 
computer industry equivalent of model years for cars.  Version 
and revision are also used as slang terms for the act of applying 
version and revision numbers to products (e.g. "When Microsoft 
versioned Windows in 1992 to 3.1, many people felt they should 
have versioned it 4.0 because of its improvements over 3.0.").  
Version numbers are not always sequential.  For example, 
Microsoft released Word for Windows 2.0 and then released their 
next version as 6.0.  There was no version 3,4 or 5 on the 
Windows platform.
There are few standards used for versioning, but revisioning is 
usually done using dates, or revision dates.  For example, a 
program named SuperStuff might be versioned Superstuff Revision 
0495 to indicate that it was last updated April of 1995.  Some 
programs are revision dated down to the hour.
Video Graphics Array (VGA)
The successor to EGA and the standard from the late 1980s to 
about 1994 for personal computer graphics.  Originally introduced 
as the IBM color graphics standard used on Personal System/2 
(PS/2) series of home computer models, the standard has undergone 
several updates and enhancements.
Virtual Address Extension (VAX)
The most successful minicomputer design in industry history, 
possibly excepting its immediate ancestor, the PDP-11.  Between 
its release in 1978 and its eclipse by killer micros after about 
1986, the VAX was probably the hacker's favorite machine of them 
all.  [Source: The Jargon File 3.0.0] Manufactured by DEC.
VisiCalc
The first widely-used spreadsheet program, available for UNIX, 
Apple ][, CP/M and many other platforms of its day.  Obsolete.   
spreadsheet, Lotus, Apple, CP/M, UNIX
warm boot
To restart an operating system without physically shutting off 
power to the computer.  The components are still "warm", or 
receiving electricity, while the computer is restarted.  Usually 
faster than cold booting and often a method of recovering data 
since a warm boot does not erase the contents of certain types of 
memory.  Warm boots are always reboots.
wizard
A term apparently concocted by Microsoft to describe a type of 
walk-through help developed initially for their Microsoft Office 
suite of applications (Word, Excel and PowerPoint) and now 
implemented on a wide range of Windows 3.1 and Window 95 
applications.  Wizards are designed to assist novice users 
through step-by-step processes, ranging in complexity from the 
installation of new software to the creation of complete desktop 
publishing documents, without requiring the use of the manual or 
any prior knowledge of the program.
This topic is also the first screen of a demonstration wizard 
created to show how the process works.  Click the Next Topic 
button to continue with this short demo.
WordPerfect
Refers either to WordPerfect Corporation, an American software 
giant most notable for their WordPerfect software.  Wordperfect 
is also novice slang for any word processing program (e.g. "What 
kind of wordperfect do you use? I prefer Word for Windows 
myself.")
word processing
The act of formatting a text document which may also contain 
graphics for purposes of viewing or printing, usually by others.  
The line between word processing and desktop publishing has 
become blurred in recent years; the sophistication of modern word 
processors now gives them facilities once reserved for desktop 
publishing software and vice versa.word processor
A piece of software designed to process text into documents for 
printing or transmission.  Word processors are used for both the 
development of new documents and the alteration and reformatting 
of existing documents.
workstation
A network term that refers to a computer designed both for 
stand-alone work and connection with a network.  Also a generic 
term referring to high-end UNIX PCs such as those made by Digital 
Equipment Corp. and Sun Microsystems.
Slang: can also refer to the operating environment or workspace 
where such a computer is located.
write-protect
Write protection is the application of a measure to any writable 
storage medium to prevent data from being written to it.  Write 
protection usually refers to floppy disks.  3-1/2" floppy disks 
can be protected against accidental writes by closing a small 
window on the disk by sliding the tiny black tab designed for the 
purpose over the window.  5-1/4" disks use a different type of 
write protection.  These disks have square notches in the sides 
of them, and covering this notch with adhesive tape of any kind 
will prevent it from being written.
Hard disks can also be write protected, but this requires special 
software and in most cases this kind of protection isn't 
practical since Windows needs to be able to write to its swapfile 
quite frequently on most systems with less than 12Mb of memory.
xBase
A generic term used to refer to any database or database 
management software which is compatible with the industry 
standard dBASE format developed by Ashton-Tate.  Packages that 
use the dBASE file format are said to be xBase products, and 
there are literally tens of thousands in use.  dBASE is currently 
at version V (5); the base industry standard for xBase is dBASE 
III compatibility.  dBASE was the first widely-used database 
products to provide full relational database capability on the 
PC.

Essential computing terms and concepts
What exactly is meant by...


 Introduction   Memory?        Boot?          Format?

 Modem?         SIG?           Prompt?        Shell?

 UNIX?          Hacker?        File and directory? Software and 
                                                  program?

 Virus and trojan? DOS and Windows? ZIP or compressed archive? 
                                                  BBS or Bulletin 
                                                  Board System?

 Hard disk and floppy disk? Bits, bytes, kilobytes and megabytes? 
                                   Installation, setup and 
                                   configuration? Path?





This is a collection of important words and concepts every 
computer enthusiast needs to know.  In this section, you'll be 
offered detailed explanations of many critical concepts and terms 
useful to anyone computing in the late 1990s.  You'll also be 
offered other resources to enhance your understanding and skill.  
As always, go as far with this as you feel necessary for the task 
at hand.  There's probably far more information here than you 
need, but better to have it and not need it than to need it and 
not have it.
Even if you're not a beginner, you'll probably find a lot of 
interesting trivia and computing facts you didn't know before.  
This page will help you get a lot more out of the hardware and 
software you have by letting you focus less on what it is and 
more on what it does.


What are bits, bytes, kilobytes and megabytes?


A bit is the smallest amount of data you can have on a computer.  
A bit can be either a 0 or a 1. It's like a switch...one 
switch...that can be on or off.
     A byte is eight bits, or a combination of eight on-off 
switches.  It sounds pretty meaningless until you see bytes as 
similar to LED letters and numbers.  Think of each segment is a 
bit, and the combination of these segments, on or off, make up 
all the letters and numbers in your computer's alphabet.


Here are all eight bits shown as on or 1, which might represent 
the switches necessary to display all segments in our eight-piece 
(8-bit) LED display.  It appears here as an 8 with slashes in the 
two loops.  Naturally if they were all set to off, all segments 
would be invisible, creating a blank or "null" character.  (Every 
computer's alphabet reserves at least one such character.)




Here, two segments have been turned to off or 0 to create the 
letter R.




And here, three segments have been set to 0 to make a 6 
character.
     These eight segments combine to make all the letters in the 
most basic PC alphabet: the eight-bit character set.  This isn't 
a perfect example of how it works, because some of the characters 
made from combinations of these segments won't look like anything 
you would recognize as a normal character.  What's important is 
not so much that you understand all 256 possible combinations, 
but that your computer does.  Most software simplifies the 
translation so that all you need to know are the alphabet, 
numbers and punctuation keys on your keyboard.
  
Here's where things get a little strange


A kilobyte might logically seem to be 1,000 bytes.  It isn't.  
Instead, it's 1,024 bytes, and it's interesting the way this 
works.  These multiples are actually exponents, or powers of 2.  
8 is 2 cubed (2 to the 3rd  power); 1,024 is 2 to the 10th power.  
Here's where it gets interesting (not to mention confusing) since 
kilo- almost always means 1,000 in other contexts.
     A megabyte is a million-plus, or 1,048,576 bytes, or 2 to 
the 20th power.
     Gigabyte, the current level of measurement used for PC hard 
disk storage, is a billion-plus; 1,073,741,824 bytes or (you 
guessed it) 2 to the 30th power.
     Terabyte, more often used theoretically than practically, 
represents a trillion-plus bytes; 1,099,511,627,766 to be exact.  
Tera here has nothing to do with three, since it represents 2 to 
the 40th power.
     What's interesting is how close these base-2 exponents come 
to being base-10 large round numbers, and how each three 
additional zero's is exactly 10 powers of 2 higher than the 
previous three.  It stems from the fact that 1024 is 2 to the 
10th power.
  
What is memory...exactly?


There are more than a dozen types of memory in the average PC 
today, including static, extended, video, shadow, upper, cache, 
virtual, and a few others.  But there are two specific types of 
memory you need to know about.  If you don't know about them, 
then you can't know your computer's capabilities.
    RAM memory
    Storage memory
    Short-term and long-term memory


RAM memory


The first type is called RAM memory (Random Access Memory), or 
chip memory as it is sometimes referred to elswhere in this 
guide.  RAM or chip memory is a collection of millions of 
switches stored on the computer's chips.  These are extremely 
fast switches, able to turn on or off millions of times a second, 
and they require electrical current to stay fixed in either the 
on or off position.  The contents of your RAM disappear every 
time you turn off your computer.
     RAM memory exists to help programs run and run quickly 
enough to be usable to you.  It is possible to have a working 
computer without RAM memory chips, but it would be dreadfully 
slow.

Storage memory


The second type is storage memory, and almost no one calls this 
memory any more.  It's simply called storage, disk storage, or 
disk space, because this type of memory uses your hard disk or 
floppy disks to hold data rather than the chips themselves.
     If your computer had to process information using only your 
disks, it would take at least 100 times longer for almost every 
computing task, so this type of memory is only used normally for 
long-term storage of data.

Short-term and long-term memory


Think of your computer's chips as short-term memory that changes 
in content thousands of times a second with each new task the 
computer performs, and disappears every time you turn off the 
computer.  Think of disks as long-term storage that might only 
change a few times a day.  In fact, most of the data on your 
disks will never change at all.
     Your computer can use chips to store some data over the long 
term, but long-term chip storage is extremely expensive.  A 
1.44Mb floppy disk costs about fifty cents.  A megabyte (a 
million bytes) of
hard disk storage costs between thirty and fifty cents.  A meg of 
RAM in chip form (almost all PC RAM chips are sold as modules 
called SIMMs, or Single In-line Memory Modules) cost about $50 in 
July of 1995.


What's the difference between a hard disk and a floppy disk?


If you've never seen the inside of your computer, you might not 
know that there is a another disk drive inside that you can't 
access by hand and will usually never see from the front panel.  
This hard disk (also called a hard drive by some oldtimers) is 
actually one or several metal disks -- not the flexible plastic 
type -- usually about three inches around and vacuum-sealed in a 
steel case.
     The difference between these hard metal disks and the floppy 
disks and compact disks you feed your computer from the front 
panel is a lot like the difference between a cheap audio tape and 
a high-performance metal cassette.  Metal tapes sound better on a 
tape player because they can store more audio information in the 
same amount of space.  Metal disks work faster in your computer 
because they can store more data in the same amount of space than 
regular floppies.  In fact, today's hard disks can store the 
equivalent of the contents of thousands of floppy disks.
    Storage for now, storage for later
    "Data expands to fill the container"
    Maintenance-free media


Storage for now, storage for later


The hard disk is the disk you use most often for storing your 
files.  The hard disk is what holds Windows, DOS and all of your 
most-used programs.  Floppy disks are only commonly used today 
for keeping backup copies, distributing new software, moving 
files between computers, and sharing data with friends or 
colleagues.
     Floppy disks are also much slower than hard disks.  If your 
computer had to start Windows from data stored on floppy disks 
instead of a hard disk, you might have to wait up to five minutes 
before being able to run programs from Windows 3.1's Program 
Manager or Win95's Start menu, and wait an additional minute to 
five minutes when running any new programs from Windows.
     Both floppies and hard disks are usually defined by how much 
data they'll hold, or how much disk space they provide for 
storing files.  Hard disks an come in dozens of different sizes, 
floppies in just a few.  Storage space is measured using the same 
units as memory -- bytes, kilobytes and megabytes -- because 
disks are nothing more than a way to store information that can't 
be stored permanently on your computer's memory chips.

"Data expands to fill the container"


Five years ago, 20 to 40 megabytes (20Mb) was considered a 
standard size for most hard disks, and people wondered how they 
could ever fill that much space.  Today, most experts recommend a 
minimum of 500 megabytes of total hard disk space on your system 
if you plan to run Windows or OS/2 and at least 100 megabytes if 
you just use DOS.  The latest version of WordPerfect alone will 
overflow an old 20Mb hard disk, and it can consume twice that 
amount of space if you install the Windows version
rather than the DOS version.
     There's an axiom among computer professionals: "data expands 
to fill the container".  Essentially what this means is that if 
you spend much time with your computer, it won't matter if you 
have 100Mb or 10Gb...eventually you'll run out of room.  We 
recommend that serious Windows users have hard disks of at least 
500Mb, and you will probably find anything less than 300Mb 
difficult to work with if you get serious about using the 
Internet.

Maintenance-free media


Hard disks are maintenance-free.  They are hermetically sealed 
and extremely sensitive to dust, so in most cases they'll never 
need cleaning and can't be repaired if they break down.  
Fortunately hard disks have become extremely durable over the 
last decade, to the point where you might be able to drop a 
brand-new hard disk on solid concrete and still use it.  Ten 
years ago, people were afraid to even touch their computers while 
they were running for fear of damaging delicate hard disk 
mechanisms.
     Floppy disks are also considered to be maintenance-free.  
When either a floppy disk or a hard disk stops working, it's 
almost always cheaper to dispose of it than to make any attempt 
to repair it.


There is an extensive guide to understanding floppy disks and 
formatting available at the section linked to this button.




What are format and formatting?


Formatting has two meanings in computerdom.  The first has to do 
with the arrangement of data on a disk, and the second concerns 
the arrangement of data inside of other data.  The only type of 
formatting you need to worry about for your first month or two 
with a computer is disk formatting, and hopefully you won't even 
need to deal with that.
     The format is the layout -- or floor plan if you prefer -- 
that disks use for arranging their files and data.  Floppy disks 
and hard disks need a magnetic floor plan so that the data stored 
on them can be arranged in an orderly manner.  Tapes used in tape 
backup drives and CDs also need a format.  (In a sense, even your 
computer's memory chips need a format, but this is something 
you'll probably never need to know about.)
     Formatting is usually a once-in-a-lifetime experience for a 
hard disk or floppy.  Once it has been done, it rarely needs to 
be redone.  Disks are magnetic media, just like cassettes and 
videotapes, and all magnets tend to weaken with time and use.  
But by the time a floppy or hard disk's magnetic strength drops 
below useful levels, the hard disk is usually so old and so small 
compared to the latest products that it's usually more sensible 
to dispose of it than to reformat it.
  
The different types of formats


Each different computer type has its own method or "formula" for 
formatting floppy disks and hard disks.  A disk formatted for an 
Apple Macintosh won't work on an IBM-compatible running DOS, 
Windows, UNIX or OS/2 without re-formatting or the use of special 
software designed to read Mac disks.  The same is true of 
IBM-compatible disks read on a Mac.
     There is only one surviving standard size of floppy disk in 
use on today's IBM-compatible, down from four standard sizes used 
no more than a couple of years ago.  There are still billions of 
floppies in three other sizes in common use though, and it may 
eventually be useful for you to know what these standard sizes 
are.
     Hard disks on the IBM-compatible don't have a storage size 
standard since they aren't generally transferred from one 
computer to another.  Each manufacturer decides based on their 
own test results the ideal size and format will be for their hard 
disks, and these special parameters are applied by your 
computer's hardware when the disk is formatted.  Don't worry 
about your hard disk's floor plan though.  If it wasn't already 
formatted, you wouldn't be reading this page.
There is an extensive guide to understanding floppy disks and 
formatting available in the PC Owner's Survival Guide section 
linked to this help button.
  

What is the difference between software and programs?


Let's start by defining what makes up a program.  A program is a 
chain of commands that get carried out by a computer.  It's a 
series of instructions that starts, does its thing, and stops.  
It can perform its duties this either with or without further 
instructions from you, depending upon how it was designed.
       Software
       Programs
       Binaries and executables


Software


Before we define software, let's look at hardware first.  The 
bolts that hold a door on its frame are hardware, but practically 
speaking so is the rest of the house, from the concrete 
foundation to the roofing tiles.  A bolt on its can't do 
anything.  You can't normally use it to eat ice cream, talk to it 
or make it do your dishes.  It has one purpose and one purpose 
only: holding up your door.  But the whole house is something you 
can work and play with, something you can apply in many different 
ways.
     Software in your computer is like the hardware that makes up 
your home.  It has a specific purpose, and the sum total of all 
your software is what gives your computer the power to do all the 
many things it does for you.

Programs


A program is like an automatic door latch.  The latch may open 
and close at your command, but it needs the bolts and other 
hardware which make up the sum total of the door and latch 
mechanism before it all functions properly.  The automatic latch 
by itself is useless without a door to attach it to.
     The latch mechanism is a piece of hardware, but of naturally 
not all hardware is latch mechanism.  In the same way, programs 
are all software, but not all software is a program.  In fact, 
most software isn't a program.
     Picture files and word processing documents are both 
software, but you can't run a picture file or start a word 
processing document because they normally have no mechanisms in 
them for starting on their own.  What you start is the program 
designed to handle that particular type of data.  Just like you 
apply the latch to the task of opening and closing the door on 
cue, you apply a program to the task of viewing or altering data.  
(This is why programs are often referred to as applications.)

Binaries and executables


Two other terms used to describe software are binaries and 
executables.  Executable is just another word for program.  A 
binary file is generally considered to be any non-text type of 
file.  There are a total of 256 characters available in the 
alphabet of today's PCs, Text generally uses only the first 128 
characters in that alphabet.  The other 128 characters are either 
considered special characters for text formatting or used for 
creating non-text data files.
Binary, of course, means "composed of bits", or 1's and 0's, but 
the term has more or less passed into common usage as meaning 
data which is non-text in nature.

What is the difference between DOS and Windows?


Both DOS and Windows qualify as programs.  But they are special 
types of programs known as operating systems.  They have to 
follow the rules laid down by your computer, but unlike most 
other programs, they are also allowed to make the rules for how 
other programs must behave when running on your computer.  Think 
of operating systems as a digital dwelling and your software as 
the furnishings.
     Operating systems are the programs or collections of 
programs which act as translators between your computer's chips 
and disks and your programs (or, if you like, applications).  
They are pretty useless on their own, like an empty house with no 
furniture.  They only become useful when other programs apply 
them to specific tasks.
    DOS versus Windows
    How do you tell the difference between DOS and Windows?
    Confused?  Blame the advertising agencies!
    Until Windows 95, you needed both Windows and DOS


DOS versus Windows


DOS and Windows are both different types of operating systems.  
DOS is the granddaddy of personal computer operating systems, and 
Microsoft's MS-DOS is still the most popular OS in the world.
     The difference between DOS and Windows is much like the 
difference between a tent trailer and a ranch home.  DOS is the 
tent trailer.  It can be dressed up in many ways, moved easily 
from place to place and made livable, but it's hardly a place 
where most people will feel comfortable setting down roots.  
Windows, on the other hand, provides all the comforts of suburban 
living, with the main disadvantage of being difficult to 
transport from place to place.  You can copy the basics of the 
DOS operating system to a floppy disk in about ten seconds, and 
have room left for many programs.  You can't even fit the 
absolute basics of Windows on a single floppy disk.
     DOS will do just about everything Windows will do, for all 
practical purposes, except run more than one program at the same 
time.  Like a tent trailer, it becomes uncomfortably crowded with 
more than one occupant.  With a little fancy interior decorating 
you can make DOS look like Windows and feel like a ranch home, 
but eventually you run into the severe limitations of such an 
illusion.  Unless you have highly sophisticated software designed 
for the purpose (DesqView is one such program), you can't run two 
programs at once in DOS.  Windows will easily allow you to run 
two programs at once -- or twenty --provided it has the real 
estate, or memory, to work with.

How do you tell the difference between DOS and Windows?


It's actually very simple once you have seen both systems in 
operation.  DOS and Windows have two very different appearances.  
When your computer first starts up, everything you see until the 
hourglass
appears on your screen is DOS activity.  You can also run DOS 
programs from within Windows.  You can tell you are running a DOS 
program in most cases because all of your normal windows will 
disappear while the DOS program is running and be replaced by a 
much less pleasing-looking screen layout.




Confused?  Blame the advertising agencies!


Understanding the differences between operating systems, and the 
difference between the OS and the software it is designed to use, 
is made considerably more difficult by the way DOS, Windows and 
nearly all other OS' are sold.  The actual operating system 
software for DOS and Windows need only a select few files.  But 
there's no glamour in selling an operating system you can't do 
anything with.
     Think of it from the publisher's point of view.  If you had 
just invented the house, how would you market it?  A big, empty 
house will look pretty meaningless to people who have spent their 
lives in tents or sleeping outdoors.  What will make the house 
appealing is showing how it can be put to use, with furniture and 
decorations.  We all grew up understanding what houses and 
apartments are and how they are used.  Most of us did not grow up 
with an understanding of the difference between operating systems 
and software.


For more than a decade it has been traditional for publishers to 
package new operating systems as fully-furnished homes, complete 
with bundles of programs you can use right away.  DOS comes with 
an editor, games, a simple programming language and a range of 
file manipulation tools.  Windows comes with word processors, 
simple databases, games and a paint program.  But Paintbrush and 
Program Manager are not part of Windows, not strictly speaking.  
Instead, they are applications or furnishings, ways you can apply 
the Windows operating system in a useful manner.
     Internet can also be thought of as a new operating system, 
even though in practice it is actually more like a bundle.  In 
order to make it appealing to you, since you probably have no 
idea how to make productive use of it, most providers supply you 
with a suite of furniture to make it livable right away.

Until Windows 95, you needed both Windows and DOS


Here's where things become especially confusing.  Until the 
release of Windows 95, Windows itself wouldn't operate on the 
average home computer unless you also had DOS.  This arrangement 
was like having a two-bedroom home that could only be entered 
through your tent trailer.  The idea behind this arrangement was 
to allow Windows to be fully compatible with your old software, 
so that you could dispose of your army cot and folding chairs and 
purchase a queen-sized bed and livingroom suite when you were 
ready to do so.


Unfortunately, this arrangement also made many of Windows' 
operations ugly and, quite literally, as slow and cumbersome as 
having to use a tent trailer to gain access to your ranch home.  
You can be glad
those days are over...provided you can afford enough memory "real 
estate" to give Windows 95 a nice yard to sit in.


What's the difference between files and directories?


Practically speaking.  the difference between a file and a 
directory is the same as the difference between a letter and an 
envelope or file folder.  A file is like a letter.  It's what 
holds your information.  The directory is the envelope or the 
file folder.  Its sole purpose is to organize individual 
documents and files.
     Technically speaking, a file is any sequence of useful data 
that has a beginning and an end, can be altered, and can be moved 
from one place to another in one piece.  A directory is nothing 
more than a marker on your disk that allows you to quickly locate 
specific files or groups of files.
     It is only an accident of history that resulted in files and 
directories being called by these names.  If computers had 
developed in a different way, we might be calling them parts and 
boxes, objects and containers, particles and molecules, or even 
soldiers and platoons.  All these models have the same underlying 
meanings, and any of them could have passed into common usage.
  
How files and directories are organized


Think of a floppy disk or hard disk as a big filing cabinet.  You 
can put all kinds of letters and objects inside of it.  It can 
even contain other envelopes that hold still more objects.  Every 
directory on your hard disk is like an envelope, and every one of 
these digital envelopes has its own label that describes what it 
contains.  Files also have labels, or names, so that they can be 
identified as easily as directories can.
     Your WINDOWS directory is one example of a directory which 
contains other directories.  In fact, it is probably the fattest 
file folder in your hard disk's filing cabinet.  Inside of your 
WINDOWS directory, you will find literally hundreds of files, 
plus at least one other directory -- another file folder or 
envelope -- called SYSTEM which contains even more files needed 
by Windows and Windows' programs.
     A directory can never be a file, and a file can never be a 
directory.  There are ways to make them pretend to behave like 
each other, but down on the surface of your hard disk where it 
counts, directories are never more than markers that behave like 
containers for data.
    
The origins of the file/directory model


The idea for the file and folder model came from the origins of 
computers.  They have largely been developed and refined on 
university campuses and the research departments of industry, and 
the most similar models to computers in both environments are the 
mountains of paper the employees of these institutions are 
required to manage.  Most of the developers were somewhat 
insulated from the day-to-day business of the institutions that 
employed them and probably had less experience with file folders 
and filing cabinets than they had with directory listings and 
catalogs, so directory came into popular usage rather than file 
folder.


By the mid-1980s, developers began to realize that the notion of 
directories confused many people, and several new computers that 
emerged at that time, in particular the Apple Macintosh and Atari 
ST, chose to use a file, folder and cabinet model to describe 
files, directories and disks.  Unfortunately, the directory 
concept stuck on the IBM-compatible and lingers to this day, and 
many people still look at this as proof of how inferior products 
can still find ways to dominate the market.
     Remember Sony's Beta videotape?  Many experts believe it is 
still a better system than VHS.
  

What is a shell?


You already know what a seashell is.  It is designed to hold the 
creature who lives in it and make its life easier.  In terms of 
your computer, shells have pretty much the same purpose.  They 
are programs whose reason for existence is to make other programs 
easier to live with.
     DOS itself is a shell...a shell for the chips in your 
computer.  But even if you were a DOS expert, you would be 
totally lost if you had to communicate directly with DOS.  You 
would need to think and communicate in a completely different way 
in order to use your computer.  So DOS uses its own shell 
program, a program called COMMAND.COM, as an interpreter.  
COMMAND.COM traps your mistakes so that you can't bring DOS to a 
crashing halt by typing the wrong command at the wrong time.  It 
also traps the mistakes of other programs, and for exactly the 
same reason.  Most useful of all, it communicates, or at least 
tries to communicate, with you in something that might 
occasionally look like plain English.
Shells within shells...


Windows has its own unique shell.  In fact, it uses several.  
Program Manager is the shell that sends start program messages to 
the Windows operating system.  But when Windows 3.1 wants to talk 
to your hard disk, it has to talk to DOS first.  When you run a 
DOS program from within Windows, there is another layer of shell 
between the program and DOS itself.  DOS talks to Windows which 
in turn talks to DOS again.
     Even this software uses a shell, a program called 
WINHELP.EXE which loads helpfiles such as this one into it for 
browsing.
     If all this is a little too confusing, think of shells as 
interface software or interpreters.  Regardless of how they look, 
all shells are designed for this basic function: to make your 
communication with the software or hardware that much easier and 
more intuitive.

What is a path?


A path in computer-ese is just what you probably expect it to be: 
the trail that leads you to the data you're looking for on your 
hard disk.  What's confusing about paths is the way they're 
described.
     Let's start with a real-life example of how paths work.  
Imagine that you are standing on the corner of 1st St.  and 1st 
Ave.  in your home town and you want to go to the bakery, which 
is at 1772 13th St.  The streets and avenues in your town are 
numbered in sequence, so as long as you know the street address, 
you can figure out how to get just about anywhere from anywhere 
else.  To get to the bakery you have to walk to 13th Street, 
turn, and walk sixteen blocks down to number 1772.  The address 
of the bakery is also a path for you to follow.
     Your hard disk works in the same logical fashion, except 
that your hard disk probably behaves more like your real 
hometown.  The bakery probably isn't on 13th street, and 1772 may 
not be sixteen blocks from 1st Avenue.  It may be at 1772 Main 
St., meaning that you have to know how to get to Main St.  before 
you can find the bakery.
  
A practical example
     Here's an example of a path for a file you have on your 
system right now called USER.EXE.
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM\USER.EXE
     It's just like a street address in reverse.  USER.EXE is the 
bakery, the specific location you want to get to.  SYSTEM is the 
part of town it resides in, Windows is like the borough, and C:\ 
is like the state or province.
     Getting to USER.EXE from where you are now is like getting 
to the bakery from another state or country.
     Your starting place is your keyboard.  First you have to 
enter your C:\ drive, then proceed to your WINDOWS directory, 
then into another directory called SYSTEM, and finally stroll 
through your SYSTEM directory until you spot USER.EXE.
    
The exact path is a direct, nonstop flight to your data


Knowing how to type exact paths is a lot like being able to take 
direct, nonstop flights from anywhere on your system to anywhere 
else.  When you type C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM\USER.EXE at the keyboard, 
it takes you directly to the file you requested with no delays.  
The key to being able to do this is to understand path syntax, 
the navigating language used by your computer.
     Unless you use specially-designed software to streamline the 
job, paths on DOS and Windows computers always use the same 
syntax, just like your street address.  Your address reads like 
this:
               Your Name,
               Street Number, Street Name,
               City, State, ZIP
     DOS and Windows paths read like this:
DRIVELETTER: \FIRST-DIRECTORY \NEXT-DIR \ETC \FILENAME. EXTENSION
     It's nothing more than an unusual way of typing an address.  
There are a few simple rules you need to follow, though.
     All drives on a normal stand-alone PC are referenced by one 
letter, followed by a colon and a backslash (\).  All directories 
between the top of the drive and the file you want to access must 
be included in the path and typed exactly as they are spelled.  
Directories and files have a maximum of eight characters, 
followed by a dot and up to three more characters.  The dot and 
the extra three characters, called an extension, are optional.  
Most files use the extension; most directories do not.
     There's no way around it...you have to know these rules.  
You can't type your address as Anytown 64, terry 12002 doe, USA, 
Proudfoot Suite 106 Lane and expect your mail to be delivered 
properly, and you can't mix up path syntax on your computer and 
expect to find the file or directory you want.
    
Two types of paths?  Not really...but...
 A path is a path, but the water has been muddied a lot over the 
years.  Sometimes you'll hear something referred to as a partial 
path or a directory path and other times you'll hear of full 
path.  In the example we just used, C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM is the 
directory path because all it does is point to the directory, or 
street if you prefer, where the file is located, not the full 
address of the file itself.  Full paths also include the name of 
the file.
     Can you handle a little bit more mud?  There are also two 
ways to type directory paths: with and without the final 
backslash.  And the worst part about it is that you never know 
whether you were supposed to type the last backslash until the 
program tells you whether or not you've made an error.  If you 
want to play it safe, don't use any trailing backslash when 
typing paths to directories where you want to hunt for files.  
Just type the name of the directory and leave it, like so: 
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM
     Can you handle a bit more mud?  Here's where DOS plays a 
really rotten trick on all of us.  If you were looking for a file 
called SYSTEM in your WINDOWS directory, you'd type it exactly 
the same way as you would type it to look for the directory 
called SYSTEM!


Believe it or not, this particular feature of DOS was actually 
intended to make it easier to use.
  

What are zip and archive files?


Archive files are data files which have been specially processed 
for long-term storage or transmission.  Archives are created 
either by joining a large group of files together into one single 
file which can be split up later, or by shrinking one or more 
files using special software so that they take up less space on a 
disk or require less time to transmit over a network or telephone 
line.
     ZIP files are compressed archive files created with a 
particular program designed for the job.  This program is usually 
called PKZIP.EXE, but there are other programs which can do the 
same type of job in Windows much more easily, such as StuffIt 
Expander and Winzip.
  
How compressed archives work


Archive compression programs shrink files before joining them so 
the archive file will use less space than the original.  It's 
like a form of digital trash compacting.  But unlike a real trash 
compactor, compression software used for archiving can uncompress 
the original data to its original, usable state whenever you want 
to use it.
     Compressing files for archive purposes takes time, but it 
saves disk space.  It has become less of a concern since disk 
storage has gotten so inexpensive, but it is still important in 
areas when time and data transmission speed are uncomfortably 
slow.  This is why almost every piece of new software you get 
from the Internet, including the graphics which make up Web pages 
such as this one, are transferred to your computer in compressed 
form.


If you'd like to learn more about how data can be reduced in size 
and restored to its original form without loss or change, click 
here to browse a much more detailed guide to data compression 
wizardry located elsewhere in the PC Owner's Survival Guide.
  

What is meant by install, uninstall, setup, and configure?


Think of it this way.  You install your new VCR by putting it on 
the right shelf.  You set it up by connecting the cables.  You 
configure it by programming the remote control.
     With software, installation is the process of putting the 
files that come in a particular software package in their proper 
locations on your hard disk.  Depending on the package, you may 
have had to install it from floppy to hard disk, and then install 
it a second time to its proper destination directories.
     Uninstallation is the same as removal.  uninstalling refers 
to removing the files and setup information for a software 
package from your system.
     Setup is the process of properly connecting the software to 
your computer...linking it to the right printer port, the right 
printer, the mouse or joystick, setting the menu type, choosing 
which monitor to use, selecting the Windows or DOS version, video 
card type, amount of memory needed, and arranging all of the 
other basic operating features that might be required by the 
program to work most effectively on your system.  (By the way, 
most programs will only require you to know about one or two of 
these particular features.) Setup is also known as 
initialization, so called because during this process the 
software is figuring out what its initial settings will be before 
getting its final customizing touches.


And customizing is what configuration is all about.  It's where 
you, the user, get to tailor the software to your tastes to 
whatever degree the programmer has allowed.  Common configuration 
options include: warnings or no warnings for certain operations, 
custom colors for different parts of the screen, sound or no 
sound, window size, mouse cursor shape, and the overall look of 
the program's window.




What's a prompt?
     Prompts, in DOS and Windows, are your computer's way of 
asking you What now?  Newsmen use prompters to remind them of the 
next part of the story they're reading when they don't have it 
memorized.  Teachers prompt students for answers by asking them 
questions about the current topic to jog their memories.
     DOS and Windows prompt you for responses in several ways.  
Most of the better software makes it easy for you to tell when 
you are being prompted, but not so the ordinary DOS prompt.
  
Prompts you'll recognize
 If your computer hasn't been configured with a built-in menu 
system, you'll see this every time you boot:
C:\_
     It might also look like this:
C:\WINDOWS\_
     ...or even as complex this:
C:\GAMES\GOLF\PGA_TOUR\COURSES\MYCOURSE\BACKNINE\_
     (The section on paths will tell you what this strange code 
means.)
     This is called the DOS prompt, but it is also known by users 
as the C prompt (or the A or B prompt if it's a floppy disk 
drive).  Technically it's called a command prompt, because it's 
DOS' way of prompting you to give it some sort of command.  Many 
people feel it would have been a lot more effective if it looked 
something like this:
I'm ready in the C:\WINDOWS directory.  Type your command on the 
line below.  If you need help, just type HELP.  What now?  _
     (Unfortunately, it was Friday afternoon at 4:00 p.m. when 
the research department brought this particular idea up at the 
product development meeting...or so the story goes.)
     All you really need to know about the DOS prompt is that 
whenever you see it, you are probably not in a program.  (Type 
EXIT and press the Enter key if you want to find out for sure.  
You might be "shelled out" to DOS by the program you were just 
using.) Sometimes you will get DOS prompts from within programs 
by accident if you press the wrong key, and you might think 
you've quit your program when in fact you've simply run another 
program -- the DOS shell called COMMAND.COM --from inside it.
  

What's a boot?


 Boot is actually short for an ancient computer term (if any 
computing term could truly be called ancient) called 
bootstrapping.  When a boot is happening, the computer or program 
is running its own internal software -- pulling itself up by its 
own bootstraps, so to speak -- to prepare itself to work for you.
     Boot, in computer-ese, isn't a thing.  It's an action.  
Booting is the act of starting a program, a part of a program, or 
your whole computer system.  You can boot programs, hardware, or 
procedures which are offered within individual programs.


Whenever you double-click a Program Manager icon, you're booting 
a program.  Whenever turn on your computer's power switch, you're 
booting the hardware.  Each of individual messages you see while 
the computer goes through its boot process are readouts of how 
parts of the software themselves are booting.
  
A little about system booting


System booting is an important term for every user.  When you 
boot your system, you are turning on the hardware and starting 
the software.  There are two ways to do this on most computers, 
and they are known as cold booting and warm booting.
     A cold boot starts with the power switch off, in other words 
with the system's hardware cold.  A warm boot is used to restart 
a system which is already running.  When you press the Reset 
button on your computer's case (it's not a Power switch), you are 
warm booting your system.  You can also warm boot from the 
keyboard by pressing the Ctrl, Alt and Delete keys all at the 
same time (also known, not very affectionately, as the 
"three-fingered salute").  This restarts most of the internal 
software without turning off the fan, the power supply, the 
central processor chip (CPU) or hard disk, and it's a much faster 
process than cold booting.


A cold boot requires you to turn your computer's power switch off 
and turn it back on again.  Most modern computers don't need to 
be left off for several seconds as many oldtimers suggest except 
when you're cleaning up a virus infection.  You may have heard 
that you can also perform a cold boot from the keyboard by 
pressing Ctrl+Alt+Delete plus the Shift key, but this will not 
usually clear out bad data in things like modems and sound cards.  
You have to completely power down to reset those components.
     If it helps, think of it this way.  Powering down your 
computer completely to restart it is like giving it a cruel, cold 
boot to the backside.  Pressing the less violent Reset switch is 
like a more forgiving, warm boot to the behind.
     Just a reminder: if you ever have your computer crash while 
you're online with your provider, all the warmth in the world 
probably won't reset your modem.
  

What is a modem?


Modem, strictly speaking, stands for MOdulator DEModulator.  
Unless you have a direct Internet connection through a digital 
phone line or cable connection, a modem is the device either 
attached to the outside of your computer or mounted inside of it 
which connects your computer to the telephone system and 
ultimately to your Internet provider.
     Almost everything that happens inside your computer is a 
series of 1's or 0's being moved from place to place to 
accomplish various tasks.  Phone lines don't take well to binary 
information, but right now they're the best means we have of 
connecting with Internet providers.
     Modems were developed as a means of converting digital 
computer data into an audio signal that can be sent through a 
telephone line.  You've probably heard the sound created by your 
modem; it sounds a little like radio static.  What the modem does 
is encoded the 0's and 1's that make up all computer information 
into a MOdulated audio signal.  The modem at the other end of the 
line DEModulates the signal and DEModulates it back into its 
original binary form.
     Modems use the same basic principle used to carry music over 
radio waves.  You might recall that AM stands for Amplitude 
Modulation and FM for Frequency Modulation.
  
Modem trivia...


Modems will probably be all but obsolete in the next five years 
as telephone and cable systems rewire themselves for digital 
transmission.  In the meantime, they are the best means we have 
of getting Internet and other online services into in our homes.
     The fastest modems in common use are almost one-tenth as 
slow as the digital phone lines available in areas where the 
phone company has the hardware installed.  The reason they're so 
much slower is that the phone system is designed to handle a 
narrow frequency range.  All the trebles and basses are cut out 
of your phone signal.  Basses interfere with signals on other 
lines, and trebles are too fragile and require too much technical 
precision to be transmitted reliably.  If telephone lines had the 
kind of frequency response you hear on a reasonably good stereo, 
we might all be using 100kbaud modems by now instead of the 14.4 
and 28.8kbaud modems which are the current market standard.
     If that's not fast enough, some of the better-equipped 
Internet providers have a surprise for you later this year...128k 
ISDN grade modems which will operate right through your phone 
line.  It might make choosing between cable Internet, when it 
comes, and Internet through your phone lines a tough decision.
  
What is UNIX?
Here's the straight scoop on UNIX from The Jargon File:UNIX: 
/yoo'niks/ [In the authors' words, A weak pun on Multics] n. 
(also `Unix') An interactive time-sharing system invented in 1969 
by Ken Thompson after Bell Labs left the Multics project, 
originally so he could play games on his scavenged PDP-7 (a very 
old model of computer).  Dennis Ritchie, the inventor of C (a 
programming language), is considered a co-author of the operating 
system.  The turning point in UNIX' history came when it was 
reimplemented (meaning rewritten or re-coded) almost entirely in 
C during 1972 to 1974, making it the first source-portable OS.  
(Source stands for source code, which is the basic text 
information used to create almost all computer programs from 
scratch.) UNIX subsequently underwent mutations and expansions at 
the hands of many different people, resulting in a uniquely 
flexible and developer-friendly environment.  By 1991, UNIX had 
become the most widely used multi-user general-purpose operating 
system in the world.  (DOS is a single-user operating system.) 
Many people consider this the most important victory yet of 
hackerdom over industry opposition.
They explained it better than we could.  The only thing we might 
add to this explanation is that most Internet service providers 
of note in North America use UNIX, or a variation of it, as the 
operating system on their host computers.  One of the most 
popular is Linux, a free (no kidding) "clone" of UNIX originally 
developed and still maintained by Linus Torvalds which is in use 
around the world and designed specifically for use on 
IBM-compatibles.


What is a BBS (Bulletin Board System)?


Strictly speaking, a BBS is any central computer designed for 
exchanging information between users.  It's not the same as a 
server because it is meant more for interactive exchange of 
information than for use as a fixed, unchanging database.
     Practically speaking, BBS' are the most basic level of 
online service.  They are usually dialup services which you 
access with a modem and an ordinary terminal program.  Once you 
are connected you can send and receive messages with other users 
and exchange text and non-text data without having to connect 
one-on-one.  BBS' generally offer the same features as the 
Internet but on a much smaller scale.
    Where the online adventure began
    Over 100,000 little online services
    BBSing joins the Internet


Where the online adventure began


For most online veterans, BBS' was where their adventure began.  
Long before there were inexpensive dialup Internet services, or 
even online services such as GEnie, CompuServe and America 
Online, there were thousands of companies and private computer 
owners who offered their computers for public or invitation-only 
access using a modem.  Most corporate and hobby BBS' were open 23 
hours a day (the other hour was reserved for system maintenance 
and for retrieving inter-BBS mail) year-round, and offered their 
services either free of charge to all or at a nominal fee which 
was used to pay for the hardware and telephone bills.
     BBS' remain popular alternatives to online services for many 
reasons.  Besides the obvious reason (most are free if you have a 
modem and a local telephone line), they are usually highly 
specialized and offer a volume and quality of information and 
discussion on certain subjects that can't be equaled by 
commercial online services.  A local bulletin board devoted to 
automotive hobbyists, for example, might contain several times 
the total amount of information available on automotive topics 
from even the largest online service.  This occurs because the 
owner/operator and the users of the board dedicate their efforts 
to collecting and sharing information on just this topic.

Over 100,000 little online services


How popular are BBS'?  According to some estimates, there have 
been at least 100,000 public and private BBS' in continuous 
operation North America for several years now, and probably many 
more than that.  It's safe to say that at least a million 
bulletin boards have come and gone over the past decade.  You 
name it, from brownie recipes to accountants who deal exclusively 
with the medical community, either there is or was at one time a 
BBS devoted to that specific subject.

BBSing joins the Internet


BBSing has been a culture unto itself for many years with its own 
codes of conduct, language and traditions.  But the BBS scene is 
changing rapidly.  It is now possible to open up BBS' to low-cost 
TELNET connections via the Internet, many of the most popular 
BBS' are going international where before they were once almost 
exclusively local.
     Making a board available for TELNET access costs money for 
the operators, and telephone rates even for hobby boards have 
skyrocketed in recent years since phone companies began charging 
a higher rate for BBS line rental.  More and more BBS' are asking 
for donations before they allow you to access the more 
interesting areas of their boards.
     These fees are often well worth the investment.  Increasing 
exposure via the Internet for BBS' devoted to unusual subjects 
can only result in an improvement in the variety and quality of 
the information they offer.



What are viruses and trojan horses?


There are few more misunderstood subjects in computing than 
viruses and trojans.  Let's clear this up once and for all.
     A computer virus is program code which is created for the 
purpose of spreading itself.  Viruses don't have to be 
destructive to data or hardware.  All they have to do is spread.  
A virus could be as simple as the many joke viruses which have 
been circulated, which do nothing more than pop up on your screen 
for a few seconds, say something like:
HAHAHA! Gotcha!
This virus was created by the Parting Shot Group.
BOYCOTT PANTS!
....and then disappear forever, without doing a trace of damage to 
anything but your nerves.


Some viruses, such as the dreaded Michelangelo, can erase every 
bit of useful data you have in the time it takes to boot your 
computer.  And unless you have antivirus software to detect the 
problem, you won't know what until it's too late.
     Continue to the next topic to learn about trojan horses
  
What is a trojan horse?
     A trojan horse is a program which carries data designed to 
operate without the user's knowledge.  Remember the original 
trojan horse, the Greeks' gift to the King of Troy which carried 
soldiers sent to destroy the city?  A trojan might be just as 
harmless as the example shown above, or so deadly that it can 
actually damage your hardware and destroy your data.
     Most trojans do not carry viruses and do not reproduce 
themselves except when you copy or share the program containing 
the destructive code.  Trojans tend to be more common today than 
viruses.


This button will take you to the superb Computer Virus Myths 
document by Greenburg and Rosenberger, one of the all-time 
classic ghostbuster articles on viruses and trojans.


This help button leads  to the Virus Awareness Kit which will 
tell you much more about what viruses and trojans are, how they 
work, how safe you really are, and show you precisely what you 
can do to protect yourself.
  

What is a hacker?


Hacking is usually defined as the process of finding out how 
things work and what can be done with them.  It is believed that 
the term came into popular use with computers because learning to 
use some of the earlier software and hardware often felt a lot 
like hacking one's way through heavy underbrush with a machete.
     It is generally agreed among veteran computer users that the 
term hacker is more synonymous with daredevil, tinkerer or 
explorer than prankster, vandal or spy.  Right now, you are 
hacking your way through Internet, so technically speaking that 
makes you a hacker.


Hackers are not demons in human flesh whose only purpose in life 
is to cause problems or other computer users.  The correct term 
for that type of user is cracker.  The media has weighted its 
coverage heavily on the side of destructive hackers and paid very 
little attention to constructive hackers.  This imbalance has 
become so severe that the mere mention of the word hacker can 
strike fear into the hearts of average people.   But don't get 
the idea that hackers are magicians who can be relied upon to 
solve your computing problems on request.  Most hackers have been 
"free-advice'd" to death.
     To put it another way, there are users and there are 
hackers, and practically anyone getting involved with Internet at 
this point in time can consider themselves to have more than a 
little hacker blood in them.

What are SIGs?


Sig has two computing meanings, one specifically Internet-related 
and the other related to computing in groups.  This help button 
will take you to the first definition which is located on a 
different page.
     SIG is an acronym that stands for Special Interest Group.  
SIG is also spelled lower-case as sig, and the term is used to 
describe any group of computer enthusiasts who gather to share 
information about a common interest.  That interest is usually 
computer-related, but sigs can be formed for virtually any 
purpose.
     Message areas on bulletin boards and online systems are 
often referred to as sigs when the messages are about specific 
topics.  Computer clubs often have many sigs to encourage the 
various interests of its members.  It's not uncommon for large 
clubs to have more than a dozen, including sigs for programmers, 
novices, gamers, Mac users, OS/2 users, graphics fans and 
MIDI/music lovers.  USENET newsgroups are also occasionally 
referred to as sigs (many feel that this is not a correct usage 
of the word) since they tend to focus on specific topics and 
issues.

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