A Primary Reading Program for Beginning Braille Readers

#AUTHOR: Caton, Hilda

#TITLE: A Primary Reading Program for Beginning Braille Readers

#CATEGORY: Braille Reading,

#PUBLICATION: Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, Vol. 73, No. 8, October 1979, 309-313

#ABSTRACT: Describes the procedures used in planning and writing a primary reading program specifically for students who will use braille as their reading medium. Discussion centers on the selection of vocabulary and a teaching method appropriate for such a program. Gives details of research findings and the use of these findings in presenting the vocabulary to students.

A Primary Reading Program for Beginning Braille Readers

HILDA CATON, ED.D.

Dr. Caton is assistant professor of vision impairment program, Department of Special Education, University of Louisville, and project director, Department of Educational Research, American Printing House for the Blind.

Reading ability has long been acknowledged to be a critical factor in the educational progress of children. Learning to read is a complex task regardless of the medium through which the skill is acquired. However, children who read print have access to materials that are specifically designed to minimize learning difficulties. This is accomplished through the control and sequential presentation of vocabulary, reading skills, and concepts based on what is known about print orthography and about children's previous experiences. Unfortunately, no such control has been exercised in the preparation of reading materials for visually handicapped children who must use braille as their reading medium. Instead, the standard practice in publishing braille materials for teaching reading is to transcribe print readers directly into braille without consideration of the unique attributes of the braille code itself. As might be expected, this practice creates a number of problems for beginning braille readers.

Problem Areas

The literature describes a number of problems which arise from this direct translation of print readers into braille. One very obvious problem in the pupils' text is the elimination of those clues to meaning which are provided by illustrations. This is particularly evident in the earlier texts which are to a great extent "talking-picture stories." Results of a survey conducted by Bleiberg (1970) indicated that 90 percent of 101 beginning reading teachers who responded to her questionnaire believed that there was a visual emphasis in the series they used. Eighty-three percent of the teachers expressed dissatisfaction with the resulting content of the readers. Bleiberg concluded: "The books presently in use do not meet the needs of blind children who are learning to read. The content of the books should have less emphasis on visual imagery and more emphasis on the senses that blind children use, e.g., touch, smell, hearing and taste."

Another major problem that emerges has to do with word choices. An "easy" word in print may be a difficult one in braille or, more likely, a word in braille that can be confused with another braille word or similar configuration. The problem is tied to the limited number of patterns that can be derived from the six-dot cell and to the fact that the same shape must be used repeatedly in different orientations and the same shape may assume different meanings depending upon the context within which it appears. This intrinsic difficulty and ambiguity often presents major learning problems to beginning readers (Bleiberg, 1970; Rex, 1971) and is doubtlessly responsible for many of the reading errors described by Ashcroft (1961). Inadvertently, because of the differences between print and braille, the beginning readers designed for seeing children often present braille reading children with the most difficult configurations at the very earliest level. One other related problem results from the fact that transcriptions of print materials for primary braille reading do not take into consideration difficulties arising from the use of contractions in braille. This problem occurs, for example, in the "dual" presentation of words such as in, was, to, etc., which may appear in either contracted or uncontracted form (Rex, 1971).

All these problems emphasize the need for special materials that would minimize difficulties in learning to read braille by taking into account the structure of the braille code-a code that includes letters, contractions, and abbreviations. In response to the identified need for these materials, the American Printing House for the Blind initiated work on the development of a beginning braille reading series in September 1975. The ultimate goal was to develop a series which included pupils' texts, teachers' editions, and worksheets for the transition preprimer, primer, first reader, second reader, and third reader levels.

Writing the Specifications

As the first step, a thorough review of the literature was conducted in order to assemble information relative to braille reading, tactual perception, concept development in blind children, and current practices in teaching reading. This body of information was then used to guide the formulation of a set of specifications for developing the reading series.

The review of research on braille reading provided information in specific areas which must be considered in the selection and sequencing of vocabulary and content for the stories. Factors identified as being most important for this purpose were: (1) orders of difficulty for braille character recognition, (2) types of errors most common in braille reading, (3) frequency of occurrence of specific braille characters, (4) perceptual factors in braille word recognition, and (5) problems in braille reading arising from direct translation of print readers to braille. The story content of print readers currently in use was analyzed to identify topics appropriate for use in stories to be included.

The review of research in tactile perception was conducted in order to gain information related to the legibility of tactile symbols, legibility of tactile formats, and efficiency of certain search techniques in reading tactile displays. This information was needed for planning page formats, kinds of tactual discrimination tasks to be included in the readers, and the kinds of diagrams and drawings to be included.

Problems identified in the area of concept development in blind children included lags in progression through developmental stages, and lack of environmental concepts resulting from experiential deficits. On the basis of these findings, specific story content designed to build environmental concepts was added, and exercises directly aimed at developing senses other than vision were included.

The areas reviewed in general reading were perception (sensory modalities, processes, discrimination, etc.), motor skills, language problems, experiential background, cognition, and reading interests. The approach used in this review was first to analyze research in those areas which were related to blind children to determine the relevance of the topics to the development of the braille readers. Following this, research in the relevant topic areas was reviewed. Decisions regarding the approaches to teaching reading used in the braille reading series were based on the results of this review.

All information gathered through the review of research was summarized and used in writing the specifications, which in turn formed the basis for the beginning braille reading series. The specifications were quite detailed and consist of two major categories: Section 1 was related to the selection of vocabulary and Section II was related to the selection of an appropriate teaching methodology.

Selecting Vocabulary

The selection of vocabulary was based on two major areas of research: (1) categories of the braille code and (2) individual characters of the braille code. Words needed to tell coherent interesting stories were added later.

The specifications related to categories of the braille code are based on the study by Ashcroft (1961), which orders the braille code on the basis of the difficulty blind children have in discriminating words, characters, or signs falling within specified categories. These categories, from easiest to most difficult are

1. Alphabet abbreviations-single letters of the alphabet which stand for a whole word
2. Full spelling-words fully spelled out, using no contractions
3. Upper-cell words and contractions-words and contractions which contain dots in the upper part of the cell (dots 1 or 4)
4. Lower-cell words and contractions-words and contractions that do not contain dots 1 and 4
5. Combinations of orthography-words containing combinations of upper-cell, lower-cell, short-form words, and multiple-cell contractions
6. Multiple-cell contractions-whole-word contractions made up of two or more cells, or words that contain part-word contractions made up of two or more cells
7. Short form words--contractions using from 2 to 6 letters to represent a word

Vocabulary words from the Dale 769 Easy Words and the Dolch Basic Sight Vocabulary referred to hereafter as the Dale/Dolch list, were used in the selection of vocabularies for these categories. Within each category, research reported in Nolan & Kederis, (1969) and research related to orders of difficulty of individual characters (Bloomer, 1970; Hoffman & Cook, 1970; Henderson, 1967; and Kederis, 1964) was used for more specific ordering. For example, the alphabet abbreviations made up the first order, since this category had been identified as the one most easily recognized by blind children. It was determined that all words in the list of alphabet abbreviations (with the exception of the word knowledge) were contained in the Dale/Dolch List. Within this list, the four orders of difficulty for alphabet words cited above were used for the final selection of vocabulary words. In the full spelling category, uncontracted words from the Dale/Dolch List were arranged by number of characters, since research findings indicated that short, familiar, uncontracted words were more easily recognized than long, unfamiliar, contracted words (Nolan & Kederis, 1969). Similar procedures were used in ordering vocabulary in the other categories. Words from the Dale/Dolch List containing upper-cell contractions, lower-cell contractions, combinations of orthography, and multiple-cell contractions were arranged in separate lists as were the short form words.

Following this, research related to individual characters of the braille code was used in conjunction with the information just described as a basis for sequencing the introduction of specific words and characters within categories. Some of the error types identified as those most commonly made by elementary school children (Ashcroft, 1961) are: (1) errors in perception-missed dots, added dots, ending errors, (2) errors in orientation-reversals, vertical alignment errors, horizontal alignment errors, and (3) errors in interpretation-association errors, gross substitution errors.

Other considerations in the selection and introduction of specific words and characters were the frequency with which certain types of errors occur, the identification of frequently confused characters, and orders of difficulty of individual braille characters. Research findings revealed that characters similar in shape are among those most easily confused by blind children in their reading (Kederis, 1962). Therefore, selection of vocabulary took into consideration that words and characters of this type should not be introduced together in beginning levels of the reading series. Later, it was agreed that a few "confusers" might be used together at early levels if sufficient practice in discriminating between such words was provided. Also, emphasis was given to the fact that there should be a gradual progression toward the use of such words and characters together. To assist in this selection a list of the 55 one-cell characters and the characters with which they are most easily confused (Kederis, 1962) was drawn up.

Henderson (1967) found that certain clusters of characters seemed to group together in terms of the frequency with which they were missed by braille readers. These clusters, in general, consist of characters that are similar in configuration but are missed because of reversals, missed dots, or other types of errors already discussed. The same caution was exercised in the introduction of words containing these characters as in the introduction of similar one-cell characters described above. A list containing these easily confused clusters was also drawn up to assist in the vocabulary selection.

The final consideration in vocabulary selection was based on research findings which indicate that a positive relationship exists between the number of dots in a braille character, or word, and its legibility as determined by the speed with which it is recognized (Uniform Type Committee 1907-1917; Kederis, 1962; Nolan & Kederis, 1969). In general, the findings of these studies indicated that characters with fewer dots are more easily recognized. Therefore, the 55 one-cell characters, the uncontracted words from the Dale/Dolch List, and contracted words from the Dale/Dolch List were ordered from words or characters with fewest dots to those with most dots.

After all information related to categories of the braille code and to individual characters of the braille code was collected and organized, the actual selection of vocabulary was made using combinations of the various lists. For example, in the first student text, which is at the transition or readiness level, the initial decision regarding vocabulary was made on the basis of the seven categories of the braille code. Since the alphabet abbreviations were identified as the easiest category, the first words were selected from this category. There are 25 alphabet abbreviations, and further decisions regarding which of these abbreviations to use had to be made. To accomplish this, the lists relating to orders of difficulty, easily confused characters, characters with the fewest dots, etc., were consulted. Abbreviations which most nearly met all the criteria implied in these lists were then chosen. In the process of this selection, consideration was also given to the use of words with which meaningful stories could be written. For this reason, a few words that did not meet all criteria were used. However, use of words of this type was held at a minimum. This procedure was ultimately used in the planning of vocabularies for all levels of the reading series.

Selecting the Teaching Methodology

In addition to the selection of an appropriate vocabulary for the Beginning Braille Reading Series, consideration had to be given to the selection of an appropriate teaching methodology. The review of research revealed that no specific approach had been identified as most acceptable for teaching braille reading. Basically, it appeared that the variety of approaches used in teaching print reading had also been used in some way with blind children. Most programs for blind children tend to follow the approach in the basal reading series being used by the school system in which the children are enrolled. These approaches usually reflect a linguistics or phonics approach with elements of an experience approach at the beginning levels. Because blind children are often severely lacking in experiences in their environment, a very strong experience approach was selected for the Beginning Braille Reading Series with certain phonological and syntactical notions added as students progress through the various levels. Such linguistic learnings were sequenced in the light of the special characteristics of the braille code. The basic premise of the experience approach is that, in order to read, a child must be able to relate what he is reading to the background of experiences he has had. Lack of vision creates many problems in terms of opportunity for experience. Therefore, there are many concepts to which a blind child cannot relate and reading matter that includes these concepts has little meaning for him. The experience approach selected for the Beginning Braille Reading Series is designed so that the child receives specific training and opportunities to build the background he needs to read with meaning. In addition, the phonological and syntactical components provide children with an understanding of the language they are using and with a means to attack unknown words.

Designing the Readers

Following the selection of a basic teaching method and the selection of appropriate vocabulary, the readers themselves were designed. As stated earlier, the Beginning Braille Reading Series consists of readiness readers, preprimers, a primer, first, second, and third reader. Each level contains the students' text, teacher's edition, and worksheets. For each reader level, information related to the functioning of visually impaired children at that level was used in its design. Additionally, the introduction of vocabulary closely followed the procedure outlined in the section related to vocabulary development.

For example, the Transition Level Reader is basically at the readiness level, but carries the student somewhat further than a traditional readiness reader by introducing him to a few easy braille words and to the letters of the alphabet. There are two volumes at this level. The first volume introduces primarily alphabet abbreviations (alphabet words) with several short words in full spelling. In the initial lessons of this volume, the "reading" activities in which the child engages are tactual discrimination exercises designed to improve discrimination skills as well as skill in hand movement and line following. Students should have received adequate training in these areas prior to beginning work in this reader. If there are deficits in this area, teachers are referred to Tactual Aids for Reading (Caton, 1974), A Tactual Road to Reading (Kurzhals & Caton, 1973), Tactual Discrimination Worksheets (Caton, Pester & Hurko, 1974), and the kindergarten and preschool aids produced by the American Printing House for the Blind.

The major emphasis at this level is, however, on the development of oral language and listening skills, and concepts needed by students to understand the environment they will be reading about. Each lesson contains a section in which the teacher reads aloud to students a story, poem, or fable, and guides a discussion. The purpose is to help pupils develop comprehension skills. Each lesson also contains a section in which basic concepts related to the reading materials are developed, e.g., top, bottom, left, right. Each lesson has, in addition, a language development section in which sound/letter associations and other language skills are developed orally. Then, gradually the child is introduced to the braille cell and to braille words. In the early stories, the teacher reads aloud most of the time, and students read only a few words. The second volume of the Transition Level Reader follows this same general format except that students are introduced to the letters of the alphabet as "letters" and not words.

The other readers in the Beginning Braille Reading Series build on the groundwork laid at the transition level. The vocabulary is gradually increased at each level, with close attention to the specifications described earlier. This vocabulary is carefully controlled so that blind students are provided with the much-needed repetition and drill on braille configurations which are extremely difficult and which have contributed to the problems in braille reading already described. From preprimer level on, the entire story is in the pupil's text. "Scene setting" by the teacher is kept to a minimum. Each reader, from preprimer on, provides true-to-life and make-believe stories, poems, biographies, and articles written or chosen specifically to meet the learning needs of blind children. The world of blind children is reflected. as is the world of the sighted, in which the blind children live.

From preprimer level on, strong emphasis continues to be placed on language development, particularly oral language skills. Also, in keeping with the research findings that blind children are often retarded in concept development, specific lessons which emphasize the use of senses other than vision are included. Also, a number of learning by doing activities are provided. These activities deal with concrete experiences, such as field trips, scientific experiments, time lines, map reading and mapping, creative writing, outlining, and research. As has been noted in keeping with the philosophy of reading for meaning, characters and events in the stories are those to which blind students can relate. Some of the characters have visual impairments and learn to read using braille and large type. A number of the biographies recount the accomplishments of blind achievers. Stories include events such as leaving home to visit grandfather. Settings include city, small town, farm communities, foreign lands. Various careers are explored.

All of these components are stressed in varying degrees throughout the series. Therefore, on completing the series, blind students will have been introduced to the elements of the braille code and decoding techniques in sequential stages, with appropriate drill on significant elements to insure mastery of their reading medium with a minimum of difficulty. They will have gained appropriate experiences with concrete materials and with their environment to insure the development of concepts which will enable them to read and understand material which they may previously have only verbalized. They will have learned to appreciate and use senses other than vision more efficiently. They will have improved skills in tactual discrimination and in listening that are essential to good reading. In short, they will have overcome many of the problems that have been stumbling blocks for children who use braille as their reading medium.

Summary

In an attempt to overcome many of the problems readers of braille have encountered, a beginning braille reading series designed to eliminate or minimize these problems has been developed. Research in the areas of braille reading, tactual perception, concept development in blind children, and current practices in teaching reading were reviewed in order to compile a set of specifications for the series. These specifications were then used to select an appropriate vocabulary and teaching methodology. In addition they were used to select areas of emphasis, e.g., concept development, concrete experiences, to be included. The resulting series of readers includes a transition level reader (readiness), preprimers, primer, first grade reader, second grade reader, and third grade reader. Each reader level is accompanied by a teacher's edition and worksheets to reinforce specific skills. This series provides the control and appropriate sequential presentation of vocabulary, reading skills, and concepts in linguistics and in the cognitive and affective domain which has been lacking in braille materials that blind children have been using in the past. It is anticipated that, upon completion of the beginning braille reading series, blind students will be prepared to enter reading programs at the middle grade levels which use commercially produced print readers transcribed into braille.

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