D:\PROGRAM FILES\SOFTQUAD\HOTMETAL PRO\gifs\chap1000.htm

# CHAPTER 1

# VALENTIN HAUY (1745-1822)

1. ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE BLIND

2. THE INFLUENCE OF DIDEROT (1713-1784)

3. VALENTIN HAUY 1745-1822

4. LA FOIRE ST. OVIDE

5. AIMS

6. THE FIRST PUPIL

7. FIRST ATTEMPTS TO PROVIDE A MEANS OF READING

8. THE INSPIRATION

9. THE FIRST SCHOOL

10. PUBLICITY

11. HAUY TYPE

12. PRINTING

13. WRITING

14. FOUR CRITICISMS ANSWERED

15. 1791-1801

16. NAPOLEON AND L'INSTITUT DES JEUNES AVEUGLES

17. THE YEARS IN RUSSIA

18. HAUY'S LAST YEARS

19. CONCLUSION

## 1. ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE BLIND

The alphabet came into use approximately three thousand years ago, not instantaneously but over many years, and its use was probably spread by the Phoenicians during their Mediterranean trading voyages (Jean, 1987, English translation - Oates, 1992, p.51). By contrast, a tactile version of the alphabet which could be read by blind people was not invented until just over two hundred years ago (Haüy, 1786) and a means of writing was not evolved until 1821 (Pignier, 1859, p.14). This late development of a means to literacy was caused in part by technological problems but largely by a lack of understanding of the needs and capabilities of those lacking the major sense of sight. Because blind people often appeared helpless it was not realised that the remaining senses could be trained.

In a sighted world it seems that the blind must adapt in order to be accepted, but for progress to be made those with sight have their part to play too, for "it is only in the context of a society where at least the rudimentary needs of blind persons are reasonably taken care of that a new ideology can emerge, one that insists that the larger society no longer use their handicap as a pretext to isolate them from the society of sighted persons" (Lukoff and Cohen, 1972, p.4).

Monbeck (1973, p.23) considered that "the general treatment (to be distinguished from portrayal) of blind people in the western world falls into three historical phases: treatment as liabilities, as wards, and as members of society", and added the qualification that there were no historical periods in which blind people were uniformly portrayed. When such people were regarded as "liabilities" or "wards" it was the more likely that history should record little of their lives, with the result that such references as there are are patchy and brief giving little general account of living conditions for those concerned.

An early famous example of providing for the blind as wards occurred in Paris in 1254 when Louis IX set up the Congregation and House of the Three Hundred, usually referred to as the Quinze Vingts (French, 1932, p.47). It was probably built on an older foundation and there are various theories, none substantiated, as to why the number of inmates was always exactly three hundred, nor for which category of blind people it was first intended - possibly returning soldiers blinded during a tour in Egypt, or to help some of the many blind people in Paris (ibid. pp.48-49).

## 2. THE INFLUENCE OF DIDEROT (1713-1784)

In the sighted world in Europe during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries there had been a renaissance of interest in thought and creative art of the classical age, and by the eighteenth century "there was a considerable body of advanced thinkers in France imbued with new and revolutionary ideas on religion, science, history, society, and anxious to spread the enlightenment of which they believed themselves to be the possessors" (Cobban, 1957, Vol.1, p.86).

Amongst these thinkers was Diderot who was responsible for editing an "Encyclopédie" which was to contain "all knowledge and be a work of propaganda for the new ideas" (ibid., p.86). The first volume was published in 1751 and it contains nearly two pages written by Diderot about the blind. [A copy kept open at the relevant pages, may be seen in the Musée Historique at l'Institut des Jeunes Aveugles, Paris.] The account demonstrates Diderot's specific interest in seeking to understand how the human brain can function when without the sense of sight. For this purpose he had paid several visits to discuss with and make observations on Saunderson, a blind professor of mathematics at Cambridge University. By contrast, Diderot also made observations on a poor blind man living at Puiseaux in France (1773, p.74) where "it was about five in the afternoon when we came to the blind man's house, where we found him hearing his son read from raised characters".

## 3. VALENTIN HAUY 1745 - 1822

Valentin Haüy lived in Paris during the second half of the eighteenth century. He was born in Picardy in 1745, and completed his education in Paris where he attended the university. With his knowledge of languages, he earned his living by helping business men with translations of foreign correspondence, and he specialized in deciphering old manuscripts in French and foreign languages and was interested in foreign codes (Henri, 1984, p.25). He carried out some translations for Louis XVI, and eventually became a master and subsequently a professor at the Bureau Académique d'Ecriture (ibid., p.30), which had been founded by the king. This was a prestigious appointment and his interest in communication was invaluable for his future work in helping the blind to become literate.

He was six when the first volume of the "Encyclopédie" was published, but as he grew up he was likely to have known and been influenced by evidence of the New Thinking appearing in books, articles and also in letters in the Journal de Paris. For example, in 1784 when Haüy was about to begin his great work of systematically educating blind pupils for the first time, he sent a letter to the Journal on 30th September (ibid., p.48) in which he wrote "... c'est à celle de Monsieur Diderot imprimée en 1759, que je suis redevable de l'idée d'un plan d'éducation à l'usage des aveugles" (sic). In 1760 the abbé de l'Epée opened the first school for the deaf and dumb, where Haüy gave practical help in teaching the pupils the manual alphabet and also to speak.

## 4. LA FOIRE ST. OVIDE

With such an interest and also practical experience in helping children with a major disability it is not surprising that Haüy was deeply distressed by a spectacle which he witnessed in 1771 at la Foire St. Ovide. Twelve blind men from the Quinze Vingts had been hired to entertain the crowds: "They were dressed up in ugly gowns and long pointed hats and wore huge cardboard spectacles without lenses on their noses. They were set in front of a desk with music and lights and produced a most monotonous sound, for the singer and the violins and the cello all followed the same musical part. ... behind their leader they placed a peacock's tail, fully spread, and on his head a Midas headdress." (Haüy, 1800, pp.9-10.)

The onlookers were highly diverted, but Haüy understood the utter humiliation of the performers, and the spectacle reinforced his determination to help bring purpose to the lives of blind people. He described (ibid. p.10) how for 12 years [13 according to the dates] he worked late at night to earn more money and even contracted debts in order to set up the first educational establishment for blind workers.

## 5. AIMS

In April 1784, the Journal de Paris announced the arrival in the capital of a young blind musician from Austria named Mlle. Maria von Paradis (Henri, 1984, p.45). Besides her musical ability which drew crowds to listen, she made copies of her music by means of pricks on paper rested on a soft surface. She also had a small printing press for correspondence with the sighted, with which she used pica fount (Haüy, 1786, trans. 1793, p.20). Unfortunately no record exists of the details of its construction (Levy, 1872, pp.315-318). Haüy endeavoured to find out all he could about her innovative means of communication, so he had several meetings with her and was much encouraged by her ready interest in his project to help the blind. "The aim we had before us was the following: to rescue the blind from that distressing and even dangerous burden which idleness creates; to help them find a means of livelihood in pleasant and easy tasks; to insert them into society; to comfort them in their misfortune and, it is above all, by collecting the results of their efforts in workshops and museums ..." (Haüy, 1800, p.11).

## 6. THE FIRST PUPIL

Henri (1966, p.12) described how Haüy selected his first pupil. He gave a silver coin to a young beggar who was sitting by the church porch of St. Germain des Prés, only to have the coin returned by the beggar who thought the giver had mistaken it for a coin of lesser value. This action led Haüy to draw conclusions about the young man's character and also his keen sense of touch perception. The beggar was Francois Lesueur, aged 17, whose daily earnings were taken home to support an elderly father, his mother and five younger brothers and sisters (de la Sizeranne, authorised translation from second edition by Lewis, 1893, p.61). At first, Lesueur spent half his day being taught by Haüy who recompensed him for lost earnings, and soon he was learning full time, resulting in the unusual situation of the teacher paying the pupil (ibid. p.61).

## 7. FIRST ATTEMPTS TO PROVIDE A MEANS OF READING

Haüy (trans.1793, p.12) was aware that "various but ineffectual experiments had been tried to provide a means of reading". Historically these seem to have been attempted in isolation. Guillié (trans. 1819, p.105) described how in the sixteenth century letters cut in wood were "sunk or made hollow, on which account the fingers were unable to trace the forms of the letters unless they were very large." In 1575 Rampazetto of Rome taught people to read by letters carved in relief on thin wooden tablets (ibid., p.105). The disadvantage of this system was that the letters were immoveable and a fresh tablet was required for each page. In 1640 Pierre Moreau, a notary of Paris, devised a system of moveable letters cast in lead (ibid., p.106), but the great expense prevented him continuing with the project. The idea of having separate type so that the letters could be reused was a definite advance.

Galliod (1828, Notice Historique sur l'établissement des Jeunes Aveugles, mss., p.1) described letters and numbers "carved in relief on the upper surface of wooden tiles and a protuberance on the underside which kept each tile in place in the vertical troughs cut out of a rectangular board" (Musée Historique and Musée Valentin Haüy). The following illustration demonstrates the uneven heights of the tiles which might have caused deciphering problems when used for reading on such a board.

Embossed tiles used by Haüy to teach reading and mathematics.

Henri, 1984, p.72.

Haüy (trans., 1793, p.12, footnote) believed that "It is without doubt by these means that the blind man of Puiseaux, of whom M. Diderot speaks in his letter to a friend p.8 taught his son to read". On the other hand Guillié (trans.1819, p.108) states that the blind man used letters of wood kept together by a metal bar threaded through the "tails" on the backs of the letters.

Though Haüy used such wooden characters when he first began teaching (Henri, 1984, p.49) he regarded such methods as "gross and imperfect utensils" which "only presented to the blind the possibility of attaining and enjoying the pleasures and advantages of reading without affording them the proper means of acquiring them" (Haüy, trans. 1793, p.12). The days of being able to read continuous embossed prose in books were still in the future.

## 8. THE INSPIRATION

Galliod (1828, mss., pp.1-2) described the exact moments when a means of literacy for the blind was first discovered. "One day, close by Haüy's desk, Lesueur chanced to find a funeral card which was strongly indented on the reverse side, where he recognised the letter O." He called to Haüy, who, understanding the potential of the discovery, "with the handle of his quill pen and with a little pressure, traced the characters on thick paper, which his pupil immediately recognised; this gave the idea of reading and writing in relief".

We know nothing of how Haüy must have experimented with the size and shape of the configurations, the spacing of letters and words, the type of paper and the technical means of embossing. In the "Advertisement to the French Edition" mentioned by Haüy (undated, trans. Blacklock, p.221), there is reference to appendices including "the Examples (sic) of the forms of the several operations in printing, which may be executed by the blind".

Lesueur proved to be intelligent and keen to learn, and by November 1784, he could "read an Extract de la vie de Saunderson" (sic) printed in relief for his use, make phrases from dictation, calculate and recognise embossed musical signs (Henri, 1984, p.51). Haüy had been fortunate in his first pupil but he needed more proof of the success of his project.

## 9. THE FIRST SCHOOL

La Société Philanthropique had been set up in 1780 (ibid., p.44). It was "an organisation composed of such benevolent persons as may be moved by a union of their efforts and their means to aid the poor and suffering" (de la Sizeranne, trans. 1893, p.55, from first notice of the society). In 1783 it was decided that specific groups of needy people should be supported including "twelve children of poor artisans, blind from birth or soon after" (ibid., p.55). Haüy used them to try out his methods further and the Société "satisfied with our first trials, they designed to intrust (sic) us with the care of these unfortunate people" (Haüy, trans., Blacklock, 1793, p.32).

At first Haüy educated the children in his own home, but when numbers grew he opened "a school for both sexes and instructed them with the help of his pupil" [Lesueur] (de la Sizeranne, trans., 1893, p.63). The accommodation again proved inadequate, so with the help of la Société Philanthropiqe, he was installed at No. 18, rue de Notre Dame des Victoires in February 1786 (Henri, 1984, p.57). This may be regarded as the official opening of l'Institut des Jeunes Aveugles, the first educational establishment for the blind. Henri (1966, p.134) considered that "the originality of Haüy's undertaking lay in the opening where a general education was available to all victims of blindness, to girls as well as boys, and no longer reliant on the privileges of good families or intelligence". For those who could not benefit from such instruction, Haüy intended to provide craft instruction leading to a trade rather than leave such people neglected and feeling unacceptable to the community.

## 10. PUBLICITY

To help with the much needed financial backing, Haüy arranged for public demonstrations of the pupils' work. Some onlookers were impressed by what they saw and heard, but others accused Haüy of charlatanism. He responded by writing "l'Essai sur l'Education des Aveugles" (1786) in which he stated his aims, countered some of the criticisms and explained his methods.

The publicity Haüy needed for the school to flourish was given further encouragement when he and his pupils were invited to Versailles at the Christmas season, 1786, to give demonstrations of their achievements before the royal family (de la Sizeranne, trans. 1893, p.66). A copy of Haüy's "Essai" was presented to the king who promised support, with the result that it became fashionable to contribute towards the cost of the school.

## 11. HAUY TYPE

Haüy not only provided craft work for those for whom it was most suited, but his methods for educating Lesueur were developed for those who could benefit. He used upper and lower case script, choosing this form deliberately because he considered that it would be an easier mode for teaching writing. He had taught orthography to the sighted for many years and samples of his correspondence (e.g. Henri, 1984, p.29) show that he included the fashionable, more complicated capital letter signs.

He needed to reduce the embossed shapes to their simplest forms for tactile reading. He kept the lower case letters fairly simple, but the capital letters were still very complicated as shown in the following illustration.

Capital letters in Haüy type.

Henri, 1984, p.72.

Haüy's mistake was to consider that because a letter is easy to interpret by the eyes, there should not be too much difficulty in using only slightly adapted shapes to interpret by touch. To help with recognition, he made the letters much larger than those used for inkprint resulting in very bulky books. Guillié (trans.1819, p.111) made improvements influenced not only by his own sighted opinion, but by consultation with some of the ex-pupils of the school.

## 12. PRINTING

The processes carried out by Haüy's pupils of composing, adjusting and impressing when producing embossed books were similar in many respects to those used at that time for inkprint books (Haüy, trans. 1793, p.12). The main differences were that the type was specially cast in the form in which letters would be read instead of being in the reverse pattern, and the paper used was very thick, needing greater pressure in the press. It was dampened before being placed over the tray of type, then covered with several thick pieces of flannel before pressure was applied. A very sturdy press was required for this work.

For material to be read by both blind and sighted people, "Haüy Noire", was provided in which the embossed letters were emphasised in black; "A parchment tympanum smeared with ink was put gently on top of the sheet of paper and under the flannel before pressing took place" (Galliod, 1828, mss. p.4).

## 13. WRITING

Haüy attempted to teach writing to his pupils. Paper was placed on a fairly soft surface, such as leather or sheets of newspaper, and, "using a pen of iron, the top of which was not split, and with which writing without ink, and supported with a strong paper, they produce upon it a character in relievo which they can afterwards read, in passing their fingers along the elevated lines on the back of the page" (ibid., p.10). The paper was kept in place by a wooden frame, and the catgut strings were stretched horizontally at intervals down the frame to help keep the lines straight [Musée Valentin Haüy]. It was a slow and difficult method and only found feasible by a few students who had previously had vision.

## 14. FOUR CRITICISMS ANSWERED

At a time when many people were illiterate, education of the blind was regarded as superfluous and Haüy received criticism concerning his aims (Haüy, trans., 1793, pp.14-17), though he did not specify by whom the remarks were made. Many public demonstrations of the pupils at work were given in order to gain publicity and financial support so he was likely to hear opinions from the onlookers on such occasions. Wisely, he met these criticisms with direct replies (ibid.), for at that time the school depended entirely upon public support.

"The elevation of your characters will doubtless be very soon depressed and of consequence no longer be perceptible to the blind by touch". Haüy replied (ibid., p.14) "our pupils distinguish a typographical character by feeling, which may elude even a microscopic eye ... they read a series of words, after the elevation of the letters is depressed". Teachers of braille today find that beginners are liable to depress the dots until a light touch becomes habitual, and the early stages of a reading scheme may need replacement because newly embossed pages give better results. Haüy's volumes of embossed alphabet letters were very expensive and time consuming to produce so it is possible that he did not wish to face this issue.

"Your books are too voluminous". Henri (1984, p.59) quotes dimensions of Haüy volumes given by Guilbeau (1907):

> "Page 20 x 27 cm; 11 lignes de 24 'lettres'."

Haüy replied (1793, trans. p.14) that embossed printing was in its infancy. In fact, Haüy, like many others before and since, thought that large letters would be easier to read. Guillié (director of the school 1814-1821) wrote (trans. 1819, pp.108-109) "The letter founders who fifty years ago cast the first letters in lead, made them larger than was necessary always supposing that they would be more easily recognised than those ... which we use now. Experience has since proved that it is not the size, but the perfection of form of these letters which helps the blind to distinguish them ..." It took many years for these words to be fully understood.

In his Essai (trans. 1793, p.14) Haüy suggested that "a judicious abridgment" would help overcome the problem of volumes that were excessively large and he proposed the development of a system of contractions. In 1787 he began printing some books using a system of dashes and dots above or below the line to indicate where some of the more frequently occurring letters had been omitted. For example:

_ _ _ _ _

vowel with upper dash a e I o u

an en in on un

(or vowel followed by an m)

vowel with lower dash a e o

au eu ou

consonant with lower dot b c d etc.

. . .

bb cc dd

_ .

other selected examples d q q

du que qui

The use of such contractions appeared in "Catéchisme du Diocèse de Paris" printed in 1787 (a facsimile of page 97 appears in Henri, 1984, p.60). The method did not help the main problem of identifying letters, and was likely to have made perception even more difficult because the reading finger would have had to move up or down to perceive the extra symbols and at times may not have registered their presence. Haüy seems to have discontinued using this device and his successor did not repeat the experiment.

"... your blind read slowly, and the spirit of the most animated composition will evaporate beneath their fingers, while the words are languidly pronounced without energy and without emotion." Haüy explained (ibid, p.15) that his pupils were bound to read more slowly than the sighted because they could only perceive one letter at a time. He considered that with frequent practice in the use of his proposed contractions they would proceed with "greater quickness". He added a comment which showed an attitude that was to be very prevalent among the well-wishers who encouraged codes for the blind in Britain some 50 years later, "Let them find this exercise an effectual remedy against that intolerable melancholy which corporeal darkness and mental inactivity united in the same person are too apt to produce".

"But what good purpose will it serve to teach the blind the letters? Why instruct them in the art of printing books for their particular use? They will never be able to read ours. And from the knowledge which they will require by reading, will any considerable advantage result to society?" (ibid., pp.15-16). Not surprisingly considering Haüy's ideals for the blind, the questions show how little understanding there was of the needs of those without sight. In answer to the last point of the question, he reminded them (ibid., p.16) of the blind man of Puiseaux whom Diderot once saw teaching his sighted son to read. He added that the teaching of a blind person to read provided him with "the dearest prerogative of intellectual existence".

## 15. 1791-1801

While Haüy was seeking to get his school firmly established and was demonstrating the achievements of his pupils in public, the political clouds were gathering preliminary to the deluge of the French Revolution. He had already reached the climax of his career, and had he lived in more settled times his work would probably have continued quietly and with less challenge. Fewer funds might have been forthcoming once his aims and methods were no longer a novelty and it became less fashionable to give support to the less fortunate. Those who had helped the blind in anticipation of them becoming self-supporting, would probably come to realise that Haüy's method was indeed slow and not possible for all. Even so, the idea of education of the blind, both intellectually and manually, seemed to have come to stay.

As the events leading to the horrific stages of national revolution gathered speed there was a real danger that with financial support dwindling as his benefactors became emigrés fleeing for safety overseas, the school might be closed. Haüy realised that at all costs his work must survive even though there was the possibility that with his radical thinking as well as his royal acclaim, he might himself be compromised.

Haüy seems to have made no attempt during these years to make any educational improvements, possibly because he was constantly harassed by other matters. Food and fuel were often in short supply, and the situation was not improved when the school was nationalised in 1791 for the government had no money to spare (Henri, 1966, p.18). There was an uneasy alliance with the school for the deaf and dumb during 1791-6, a move which was psychologically unsound because the needs for both handicaps are so different and require very different training.

In 1793 Haüy became Secretary to the Committee of the Revolution in the district of the Arsenal, a position which brought him many enemies and he even found himself in prison on three occasions (Henri, 1984, p.106, footnote). He took a leading part in a grand ceremony sponsored by the Committee of Public Safety specifically in "support of the unfortunates", and for this participation he was later to be taxed with terrorism (de la Sizeranne, trans. 1893, p.72). He also joined a new cult known as Theophilanthropy which came to be regarded with derision because of excesses of symbolism and sentiment (ibid., pp.76-86).

## 16. NAPOLEON AND L'INSTITUT DES JEUNES AVEUGLES

The school for the blind was included in Napoleon's review of education throughout France. Haüy's optimistic efforts to ensure education and employment for many of his blind pupils had been disappointing, and his record of changing allegiance in efforts to sustain his school was disastrous for his reputation. In desperation he wrote three "Notes" to the authorities in his defence (1800), the third specifically described in more detail his work of educating the blind. In conclusion, he wrote (ibid., p.16) "... if this establishment is destroyed ... I shall rebuild it".

Napoleon was not impressed. Haüy was dismissed and the pupils were sent to form an annexe at the Quinze Vingts where they were taught mainly craft subjects (Dufau, 1852, p.7). Meanwhile, Haüy kept his word. He had been granted a small pension (Henri, 1984, p.124) yet he opened a small establishment for "blind workers" (ibid., p.124). It was not to flourish long because of an unexpected request.

## 17. THE YEARS IN RUSSIA

In spite of difficulties at home, Haüy's influence was to spread. The tzar of Russia, Alexander I, had received reports of Haüy's teaching, so he was invited to St. Petersburg to advise on the setting up of an institution for young blind people (Henri, 1966, p.20). He set out on the long journey in 1806, with his family and Fournier, one of his best pupils. On the way he was received at the Berlin Academy of Sciences (ibid., p.22) where he demonstrated his methods to the king of Prussia, and as a result a school for the blind was inaugurated. The future king Louis XVIII of France received him at Mittau, near Riga, and he too was impressed by Fournier's capabilities (ibid., p.22). By contrast, in spite of the royal invitation, Haüy found no preparations to welcome him at St. Petersburg, and after a year without pupils, his request to start work was greeted with a smile and the words, "We have no blind people in Russia!" (ibid., p.22). Eventually, he was provided with a building and some pupils and one very inefficient teacher. Haüy remained 11 years before he returned home a sadly disillusioned man.

## 18. HAUY'S LAST YEARS

Haüy had seen his great project founder and his stay in Russia had been beset with difficulties. Meanwhile, Louis XVIII who had met Haüy at Riga had been instrumental in the reopening of the school in Paris in 1814 under the new title l'Institut Royale des Jeunes Aveugles. The new director, Guillié , refused to let Haüy visit the school, perhaps because Haüy had left under a cloud, or perhaps Guillié wished to claim any success of his scholars. In his book (1819) he made no mention of Haüy in the main part of the text. Haüy died in March 1822.

## 19. CONCLUSION

Posterity has recognised Haüy's great pioneering work though he has been overshadowed by the name of Louis Braille who provided the lasting benefit of a punctiform code that is now used world wide. Haüy was the first in the western world to attempt to find a practical solution to the fact that the blind need to be recognised in their own right as people who should be regarded as citizens, able to make their own contribution to the general good. He opened the first school for the blind and was instrumental in the spread of institutions in Europe, and the reopening of the Paris school was largely the result of his fortuitous meeting with the future king Louis XVIII. He was also the first to provide a means of embossed reading and showed how books could be printed for use by his pupils. Others coming after a pioneer can benefit from previous mistakes. Haüy, in his desire for his pupils to be as much like the sighted as possible, chose an unsuitable embossed type, not fully understanding the perceptual problems of the Roman alphabet. He thought that reading merely involved using the same shapes but embossed and enlarged. New knowledge brings new methods.