CHAPTER II

# CHAPTER 9

# BRAILLE TODAY AND TOMORROW

1. THE BRAILLE CODE: EVENTS SINCE THE LONDON CONFERENCE (1988)

International Council on English Braille

Capitalization

2. SOME ONGOING RESEARCH PROJECTS

Longitudinal Study of Blind and Partially Sighted Children in Special Schools in England and Wales

The Development of the New Test of Children's Reading Ability

Braille Software Developed at the RCEVH

3. OTHER EMBOSSED CODES

The Moon Code

The Fishburne Alphabet (1979)

4. TECHNOLOGY AND THE BRAILLE CODE

Aspirations of the 60's and 70's

Increase in Variety and Purpose of New Inventions

5. ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE USE OF BRAILLE

Reasons for Disinclination to Learn Braille

Edamples of Braille in Use Today

## 1. THE BRAILLE CODE: EVENTS SINCE THE LONDON CONFERENCE (1988)

### International Council on English Braille

As agreed at the International Conference on English Braille, Grade 2, held in London in 1988, the International Council on English Braille was set up in the following year. The Executive Council is made up of one member from each English-speaking country represented at the London conference, and its brief is to monitor the use of braille so that unagreed anomalies do not creep in, to review any necessary changes to the code as they become necessary, and to be involved in changes that will be necessary in order to contain computer use of braille. The latter is urgent because there has been a tendency for printing houses to make their own rules in the absence of any central direction.

In 1992 the Braille Authority of North American (BANA) appointed a sub-committee charged with defining the basic methodology for extending the basic literary code (English braille) as the first step towards a Unified Braille Code (UBC). The word "Unified" may need an explanatory note to braille users in the UK. In America there are three braille codes concerned with mathematics and science and these are incompatible for use in the literary braille code. It was felt necessary to simplify these codes and bring them within one basic code. In Britain, although there are special usages for mathematics and science, much more information is contained within the literary code. Sub-committees were set up in America to deal with specific areas of code usage. Committee 2, concerned with the literary code, was extended to include mathematics, computer science and other technical fields (Report by the Objective 2 Committee, 1995). The work of the committees was originally confined to consideration by BANA, but it was soon realised that such work should have international co-operation in the interests of braille uniformity among English-speaking peoples. A brief introduction by Sullivan (December, 1995) was issued for "people who already read braille or transcribe English braille" showing, in some technical detail, what UBC may look like. The aim has always been to keep as much of the present literary code as intact as possible. Many discussions and decisions still have to be made.

### British Braille

"British Braille: A Restatement of Standard English Braille" was compiled by the Braille Authority of the United Kingdom and published in 1992.

### Capitalization

There was no reference to the use of capital letters in Braille's two "Procédés" of 1829 and 1837 and when braille was introduced for use in Britain the BFBA must have considered their use superfluous. Space had to be saved to reduce cost of production and the clutter of dots avoided in the interests of legibility. Fewer official documents were in everyday use, particularly in braille, and the frequent use of acronyms is a modern trend. The first public plea for their use in Britain was probably that made by Illingworth in a speech delivered at the Conference on Matters Relating to the Blind in 1902 (Illingworth, 1910, p.83). The sign was introduced into the code after the 1905 conference and a Primer produced sometime after stated "capital letters, and consequently the Capital Sign, are not used in this Grade except in school books or when specially desired" (Douglas-Hamilton, undated, p.6). One cannot help wondering why school children must learn their use if they are not likely to meet them afterwards.

In America the first known book to use capital letters and full punctuation was printed in 1893 (report of the Board of Education, 1909, p.33). There have been repeated requests from America since for Britain to use capitalization, but even as late as 1986 when BAUK issued a questionnaire on many aspects of braille usage, British braille users showed that the majority considered their use to be superfluous. However, new inventions and closer co-operation as the world becomes smaller calls for changes.

In 1992 BAUK received several requests to consider bringing the capital sign into full use in the UK and it was likely that once more, a decision would have to be made by Britain as a member of the ICEB. BAUK makes the final decision regarding code changes in this country, but takes public opinion into account beforehand. Poole, chairman of BAUK, issued an article (1994, 8-12) giving arguments for and against the proposal. Among the arguments for the use of the capital were:

1. Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa were now using the capital sign;
2. recognition of capitals and their function have now become a part of the National Curriculum and their use is regarded as a criterion of literacy;
3. knowledge of capitalization is necessary for those pupils and students who are learning typing skills.

Poole added (p.9) "Learning the rules needs to be reinforced by constant confrontation with the capital letter in use, if people are to apply them correctly and spontaneously".

The main arguments against were:

1. both the Gill survey and the longer BAUK survey of 1986 showed that the braille-reading public did not want capitalization;
2. unlike print, the braille capital sign occupies extra spaces. Poole quoted 4.4% extra according to the Kederis count of 1965;
3. the extra characters can cause clutter of dots which sometimes results in perceptual problems in reading.

1,200 replies, including opinions from both visually impaired and sighted users of braille, were received in answer to a questionnaire prepared and issued by BAUK in 1995. They were recorded and analysed by the Research Centre for the Education of the Visually Handicapped (RCEVH), University of Birmingham, and a report on the findings was sent to BAUK in 1996. Questions on preference re: capitalization had previously been included in the BAUK survey of 1986 (see Chapter 6). The 1986 replies from sighted users of braille were recorded but not published because of a flaw in the figures; some respondents had given options which they considered their pupils would prefer instead of giving their own opinions. It is therefore only possible to compare results for touch readers.

Some of the questions differed slightly but it is interesting to note the opinions in 1986 and 1996 regarding the two main options, (a) the capital letter sign should be used to show capital letters wherever they appear in print, and (b) there should be no change to the present practice. The results for (a) by touch readers were 1986 14.57% and 1996 55.42%, and the figures for (b) were 1986 26.20% and 1996 27.77%. It seems that those who think capitalization superfluous kept to their 1986 opinion, but the increase of 40.85% in the preference for capitalization by touch readers needs some explanation. The swing towards capitalization came partly from a rejection of its use only in educational text books, and from the use of capitals for proper names, but not to begin sentences. Also, 22.79% in 1986 voted for capitals to be used only "to clear up confusion in the text" - a rather nebulous option that was not included in 1996. The figures which include options from both touch and visual readers for 1996 were (a) 46.25% and (b) 29.58%. The over-riding reasons in favour of capitalization are probably due to more information being given to the general public before the questionnaire was issued (Poole, 1994, 8-12) and to awareness that computers have come to stay and the braille code would have to accommodate this new use of the code. BAUK's decision to include full capitalization in the British braille code was ratified in July, 1996, and this decision has now been made public (Poole, 1996, 12-13).

## 2. SOME ONGOING RESEARCH PROJECTS

Longitudinal Study of Blind and Partially Sighted Children in Special Schools in England and Wales

Being without the major sense of sight results in a child needing to develop strategies for learning using the remaining senses. To assess the problems and the achievements it is first necessary to know such factors as the type of visual defect and the age of onset.

In 1973, the RCEVH at Birmingham, under the direction of Dr M.J. Tobin, began "a longitudinal investigation into various aspects of cognitive development and school achievement in children registered as blind or partially sighted". This was the first such study. 120 subjects were included from eight schools for the blind and nine for partially sighted children. All the subjects became five during the school year 1973-1974 and they have been tested at regular intervals until the age of 18, the tests involving such factors as intelligence, manual dexterity, tactual perception and braille reading. These factors inter-relate as the child develops so that, when the onerous task of treating the statistics is completed, a much clearer picture should emerge of development stages in blind and partially sighted children as sub-groups but also, and importantly, of the development of individuals. The study should have provided valuable basic information for psychologists, teachers, social workers, and parents.

Testing for braille reading was carried out using the three standardized tests, viz: Tooze Braille Speed Test (1962), Lorimer Braille Recognition Test (1962), and the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability, adapted for use with blind children, (1972). These tests have been described in some detail in Chapter 8. There are parallel versions of the Neale test so it was possible to test the children for accuracy, comprehension and rate of reading at three regular intervals from when the child started reading until the age of approximately 11 years.

The Development of a New Test of Children's Braille Reading Ability

The narratives in the Lorimer adaptation into braille (1977) of the original Neale Analysis Test for sighted children (1958) gradually became out-of-date and it was necessary to standardize a new test on a current population of children of school age as "it would be impossible to obtain the two or three sufficiently large samples required for the trials and final standardization of an original test" (Lorimer, J., 1977, p.3). It was decided, eventually, that the Neale Analysis (1958) should be used again, but modifications were likely to be needed. Already the NFER Publishing Company had approved some slight changes in the narratives to bring them up-to-date, but it was felt necessary to test the parallel forms in more detail to assess the contraction difficulty at each stage. Lorimer's use of introductory sentences instead of pictures will also be assessed (Greaney, Arter, Hill, Mason, McCall, Stone, and Tobin, 1994).

Information gathering has now been completed and normative data for two parallel forms have been produced. Further analysis is currently being undertaken into the kinds and frequencies of braille errors. Eventually it is proposed that there shall be a teachers' handbook and when this is available workshops will be arranged to train teachers and psychologists how to administer and score the test and to interpret the findings (Director's Twenty-seventh Annual Report, RCEVH, 1996, p.12).

### Braille Software Developed at the RCEVH

During the early 1980's the following braille software was developed at the RCEVH for the BBC computer, which was used in most schools at that time. The programmes have now been converted for use also in the IBM compatible machines. The following are a selection.

Talking Braille Cell. For the visually impaired who already have some knowledge of braille. It enables the user to practise their braille without needing the constant attention of the teacher. The visually impaired person can use the six keys on the keyboard which emulate a Perkins Brailler. It is a speech programme, so a speech synthesizer would be needed.

Talking Transcribe. For visually impaired adults who are learning braille. This programme is designed to test the user when transcribing from print to Grade 2 braille. Immediate feedback is given in speech so a speech synthesizer is required.

Braille to Test. For visually impaired people who need to have their braille put into print for sighted colleagues. The six keys on the keyboard emulate a Perkins Brailler.

With the use of the foregoing equipment, the visually impaired person can develop the very necessary independence which is missing to a degree by so many, as well as being of help at school, at the workplace, and, if required, in home circumstances.

## 3. OTHER EMBOSSED CODES

### The Moon Code

The code devised by Dr Moon in 1847 (see Chapter 3) became popular for adult use during his lifetime and after his death his daughter took over responsibility for production. Its popularity was due to the comparatively clear outline and distinctive shapes of the characters which those with poorer sensitivity of touch found easier to recognise than braille. However, in "Blind and partially sighted adults in Britain: The RNIB Survey, Volume 1" (Bruce, McKennell, Walker, 1992, 10-11), it was shown that "more than 9 in 10 visually impaired people had heard of braille while Moon was known by fewer than 1 in 10". It was suggested that among the elderly registrably blind people, "the penetration and quality of teaching must be increased and the supply of relevant magazines and books to learners and readers improved".

In 1992, a project named "Moon as a route to literacy" was launched by the RNIB with the aim of investigating "the potential of Moon as a tactile code for children with a visual impairment and additional difficulties". A series of books and tapes were made and Bozic, then on the staff of the RCEVH, produced a "SoundBook" demonstrating how a range of interesting sounds could be incorporated for use with the Moon Reading Scheme (Moon Report, Issue 1, January, 1993). During discussion at the Moon Conference held in December, 1992, anecdotal evidence was given suggesting that Moon might be a stepping stone to braille for some learners.

One of the chief problems in the use of Moon is the lack of an efficient writing machine. At the request of the RNIB, the RCEVH spent a year evaluating new prototypes. "Using his right index finger in a wire loop, the operator "draws" the Moon symbol on a small plate or plaque which contains grooves and other guide-marks to help him draw the curves and straight lines that constitute the letters of the Moon system". As the shape is drawn, a writing mechanism inscribes its replica, but smaller in size, onto paper under the plate. It was considered that with practice, writers could master reading and writing in Grade 2 Moon. The device was regarded as "the most promising mechanical advance in the 140-year history of the Moon system" (Tobin and Hill, 1984, p.176).

### The Fishburne Alphabet (1979)

The 26 letters of the Fishburne alphabet are signs on rectangular backgrounds similar to dominoes. They are best explained in a diagram.

The Fishburne Alphabet (Newman and Hall, 1986, p.6)

The system does not appear to be well known, but is intended for use by those who would find braille difficult, both tactually and mentally. Its use was suggested as being an alternative to braille for labelling and possibly as a preliminary to learning braille. It was suggested that success with an easier tactile code might give the necessary confidence to encourage a start with learning braille.

## 4. TECHNOLOGY AND THE BRAILLE CODE

### Aspirations of the 60's and 70's

From when the braille code became established as the means to literacy for the visually handicapped, in both America and Great Britain, its importance was recognised by organisations and individuals. However, according to Clark (1979, p.5) the situation in America began to change. The cause was "benign neglect" for several reasons, including the advent of talking books and synthetic speech, and the increased cost of braille production. Clark added that "there are more persons with low vision who do not require braille, more elderly who do not seem to want it, and more adults who do not use it" (ibid., p.5).

### Increase in Variety and Purpose of New Inventions

One solution was technical innovation. Talking books provide a real service, but they provide passive listening. Machines using synthetic speech also have their place, but, because of low redundancy compared with normal speech, listening brings fatigue after a period. In the 60's and 70's when more money was available for research and the problem of the decline in braille readership was first being realised, two paths were followed in an attempt to remediate the situation.

More and cheaper production was necessary with a closer co-operation between what was being produced and what was required. Indeed, it was a dream that braille books would become so easy to produce that supply and demand would no longer be a problem, and, for example, text books for students would no longer arrive after their need was over. At the same time technological advances meant that paperless braille would become a possibility. Instead of always using embossed manila paper, portable machines would eventually provide a variety of options giving input, output, and speech. One of the first was the VersaBraille computer which had a keyboard with six keys and a space bar similar in use to the Perkins brailler and the storage capacity was apprximately 400 pages held in an audio cassette. "The braille display consists of a metal plate with 120 holes spaced for 20 braille cells. Each hole has a metal pin which can be raised or lowered by mechanical action" and the display can then be read as in normal paper braille. Many electrical devices have been developed since. Both technical displays and embossed paper are useful for their own particular purposes, but it was not sufficiently understood at first that, for some, talking books, the use of tape, and reading machines which could convert print to speech might take over, or at least provide the excuse not to spend the time and effort to learn braille. When new inventions appear which are intended to improve the acquisition of literacy for the visually handicapped, they are often much publicised and greeted warmly by the general public. Unfortunately, few stop to realise that such inventions are often too expensive for individual use, often for several years, although they could eventually find a place in the job situation.

## 5. ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE USE OF BRAILLE

### Reasons for Disinclination to Learn Braille

The coming of technology is not the sole cause for the lack of motivation by some visually impaired people to learn and use braille. It can be caused by a variety of factors, differing according to circumstances.

In Chapter 1, reference was made to attitudes towards visually impaired people. In spite of a change in attitude such people are still not always accepted, and by some are regarded in some way as being inferior. Fortunately this is not so common as in the past, but the individual blind person may also be lacking in confidence because a certain amount of dependence on sighted help is inevitable. Some do not wish to admit this, and the result may be a determination not to be labelled as blind. Learning braille may seem to underlie this attitude, similar to some blind individual's dislike of using a white stick.

Another problem is the lack of resources for learning braille and even a determination by some sighted people to deny such rights because of effort required by themselves. It is not always the fault of the reluctant teacher. In Britain a social service used to be visits by Home Teachers of the Bind who were trained in braille teaching. When social workers became generic there was little time or inclination to learn and teach braille, especially if there were more urgent demands on time. The RNIB has recently compiled a list of braille users willing to teach others. There was a ready response but now the Institution must arrange for the would-be teachers to be adequately trained. Now that children are mostly integrated into sighted schools, both here and in America, less resources and teaching time are available for braille reading, which succeeds best if tuition can be 'little and often'.

Unfortunately, braille is publicised as being difficult to learn, particularly by those unwilling to teach. It is more difficult than print reading, but many children take it in their stride as they progress through school, and many adults who have learned, wonder how they would have managed without. To end this work, it seems appropriate for some users of braille to give their own opinions. One extract is from a published journal and the other contributors have all given permission for their names to be included.

### Examples of Braille in Use Today

Mary Hallam, retired physiotherapist.

"I have used it since the age of six. I used braille extensively throughout my school days. Finally, I obtained sufficient qualifications in the usual public exams to gain a place in the RNIB School of Physiotherapy. Here again I used braille during my studies for reading and for keeping my own personal patients' case notes. This went on throughout my career of approximately 30 years. At home I keep a very good filing system in braille for business and domestic use, also a card index for addresses and phone numbers. All our physiotherapy machines and domestic appliances have embossed markings on them. All through the years I have collected recipes which I have put into braille if they were not already brailled, for which my family were very appreciative. This private use of braille has enabled me to feel very independent, and I have felt able to keep up with my friends and colleagues all my life."

Mary Thomas, retired shorthand typist.

"I learnt braille at school and then became a shorthand typist for 10 years until I had to retire on health grounds. At home I braille messages and use the braille telephone directory. I enjoy reading. I read magazines and read approximately five volumes of braille a month. I wouldn't be without braille."

Michael Hodgson, post-graduate student.

I began to learn braille at the age of 16 shortly after losing my eye-sight. Intellectually, the learning process was not so difficult; mastering the patterns of various contractions, etc., the practical element of relating what the mind understood - or imagined it understood - to the clumsy sensibilities of finger-tip on page was quite another matter, and I found my slowness at learning how to read very frustrating. Fourteen years later I still seldom read anything of much length from beginning to end all at once. I am reluctant for instance to begin anything much in excess of 10 or perhaps 12 pages. Braille does, however, play an indispensable part in my life and as a student it would be impossible for me to work at all without it. Even if I were to be a more confident user of the medium, one undaunted by the prospect of reading innumerable volumes - which I am not - my chosen discipline, philosophy, is not well provided for in terms of braille publications and for this I rely more on recorded material. I use braille every day, however, to write my own notes for later transcription into print and without braille labels the recorded text necessary to my research - some 700 tapes at present - would be inaccessible. I cannot imagine anything could adequately replace it."

Terry Bullingham, public relations officer for St. Dunstan's.

"I lost my sight suddenly and totally during the Falklands war of 1982 and I am pleased to say that braille played a significant part in my subsequent rehabilitation. I have often heard people say that they don't need braille nowadays with talking books and computers. Naturally, I use computer technology and taped material which I appreciate. Currently, I use braille in the following situations: my bedside novel is always in braille; the notes I use as a public speaker are in braille; a lot of my correspondence is in braille, particularly to visually impaired friends; my bank statements and telephone bills are in braille; my long-playing records, compact discs and discs as well on open reel tapes, are all labelled in braille as well as their respective catalogues; the front panel of the microwave oven has braille labels; additionally, I am a 'Meccano' enthusiast and braille is absolutely essential in labelling the various tins containing the components. Contrary to the statement, therefore, braille is still very much an essential part of my life. There is nothing nicer than taking one's book from the bedside table, drawing it under the covers into the warmth, and reading without disturbing one's spouse."

David Blunkett, MP.

"With all its quirks and frustrations, braille is essential. Without it, it would be very difficult for me to do my job. I use it for making notes, for preparing speeches - where I use headline phrases and note form, rather than following a detailed text - and, of course, for being able to refer directly to quotations or other detailed text that needs to be accurately repeated.

I enjoy reading books very much, although I get less time than I would wish to be able to do this. To me, braille is the natural corollary of print and therefore an essential tool in everyday life, whether in work, recreation or normal family activity. For me, the availability of quotes, briefing notes or documents that must be held in durable form is crucial in doing my job, both as an MP and as a Front Bench representative of the Labour Party. The availability of braille transcription through computer software and using a braille embosser makes an enormous difference. Staff can produce braille without having to know braille, and documents on disc can be transcribed with the minimum of fuss. Configurating braille material still remains a problem, as does the type of braille that is available in software packages, but the tremendous advantages massively outweigh the difficulties."

Pedro Zurita, Secretary General of the World Blind Union. ("The World Blind", July 1994 - March 1995, No.12, p.6, English translation).

"...all this technical paraphernalia does not substitute braille, but rather, on the contrary, it complements and even multiples its usefulness."

"He truly wishes that braille would cease to be an innocent victim, whose demise is announced every time a new discovery is made. He cannot help but think how much easier the work would be of the Mongolian mathematician he met who was told upon losing his sight, that it was not worth it to learn braille. And he would like to provide the suitable tools to those children he saw on more than one occasion in African schools copying their own books with writing frames. And he loudly proclaims that reading and writing braille is in no way inferior to any other means of accessing information, and therefore, children and adults with serious visual impairments who are unable to effectively use visual media, must not be deprived of the opportunity to learn to read with their fingertips on the basis of pedagogical prejudices. Braille is wondrous and absolutely innocent and, after all, what is important is not whether information and knowledge reach us through our fingers or through our eyes, but rather what we do with them with our hearts and minds."

These extracts show something of the variety of needs which knowledge of the braille code can help to fulfil, for it may provide a necessary ingredient for success at work, it can bring organisation in the home, and provide pleasure in some leisure time pursuits. This is a far cry from the days of its invention when it was first used for taking notes in the classroom. As this thesis has attempted to reveal, braille has both a history and a future.