               #CEJ ,,BC
      ,,ON ,,SOPHI/ICAL ,,REFUT,NS
               0,>I/OTLE
     TRANSLAT$ BY ;,W4 ,A4 ,PICK>D-
               ,CAMBRIDGE

    ,TRANSLAT$ 6,GRADE ,,II ,BRL 0,MIKE
    ,KEI?LEY
                ,BOOK ,I
                   #A

  ,LET U N[ 4CUSS SOPHI/IC REFUT,NS1
I4E4 :AT APPE> 6BE REFUT,NS B >E RE,Y
FALLACIES 9/1D4 ,WE W 2G9 9 ! NATURAL
ORD] )! F/4
  ,T "S R1SON+S >E G5U9E1 :ILE O!RS SEEM
6BE S B >E N1 IS EVID5T4 ,? HAPP5S )
>GU;TS1 Z AL ELSE":1 "? A C]TA9 LIKE;S
2T ! G5U9E &! %AM4 ,= PHYSIC,Y "S P >E 9
A VIGOR\S 3DI;N1 :ILE O!RS M]ELY SEEM
6BE S 0BL[+ & RI7+ !MVS \ Z ! TRIBESM5 D
_! VICTIMS = SACRIFICE2 & "S P >E
B1UTI;L ?ANKS 6_! B1UTY1 :ILE O!RS SEEM
6BE S1 0D9T ( EMBELLI%+ !MVS4 ,S X IS1
TOO1 ) 9ANIMATE ?+S2 =( ^!1 TOO1 "S >E
RE,Y SILV] & O!RS GOLD1 :ILE O!RS >E N &
M]ELY SEEM 6BE S* 6\R S5SE2 E4G4 ?+S
MADE ( LI?>GE & T9 SEEM 6BE ( SILV]1
:ILE ^? MADE ( YELL[ METAL LOOK GOLD54
,9 ! SAME WAY BO? R1SON+ & REFUT,N >E
"S"TS G5U9E1 "S"TS N1 ?\< 9EXP]I;E MAY
MAKE !M APPE> S3 = 9EXP]I;ED P OBTA9
ONLY1 Z X W]E1 A 4TANT VIEW ( ^! ?+S4 ,=
R1SON+ RE/S ON C]TA9 /ATE;TS S* T !Y
9VOLVE NECESS>ILY ! ASS];N ( "S?+ O!R
?AN :AT HAS BE5 /AT$1 "? :AT HAS BE5
/AT$3 REFUT,N IS R1SON+ 9VOLV+ !
3TRADICTORY (! GIV5 3CLU.N4 ,N[ "S ( !M
D N RE,Y A*IEVE ?1 ?\< !Y SEEM 6D S =A
NUMB] ( R1SONS2 &( ^! ! MO/ PROLIFIC &
USUAL DOMA9 IS ! >GU;T T TURNS ^U "NS
ONLY4 ,X IS IMPOSSI# 9 A 4CUS.N 6BR+ 9 !
ACTUAL ?+S 4CUSS$3 WE USE _! "NS Z
SYMBOLS 9/1D ( !M2 & "!=E WE SUPPOSE T
:AT FOLL[S 9 ! "NS1 FOLL[S 9 ! ?+S Z
WELL1 J Z P :O CALCULATE SUPPOSE 9 REG>D
6_! C.T]S4 ,B ! TWO CASES 7"NS & ?+S7 >E
N ALIKE4 ,= "NS >E F9ITE & S IS ! SUM-
TOTAL ( =MULAE1 :ILE ?+S >E 9F9ITE 9
NUMB]4 ,9EVITABLY1 !N1 ! SAME =MULAE1 &A
S+LE "N1 H A NUMB] ( M1N+S4 ,ACLY J Z1 9
C.T+1 ^? :O >E N CL"E 9 MANIPULAT+ _!
C.T]S >E TAK5 9 0! EXP]TS1 9 ! SAME WAY
9 >GU;TS TOO ^? :O >E N WELL ACQUA9T$ )!
=CE ( "NS MISR1SON BO? 9 _! [N 4CUS.NS &
:5 !Y LI/5 6O!RS4 ,= ? R1SON1 !N1 &=
O!RS 6BE M5;N$ LAT]1 "! EXI/S BO? R1SON+
& REFUT,N T IS APP>5T B N R1L4 ,N[ = "S
P X IS BETT] WOR? :ILE 6SEEM 6BE WISE1
?AN 6BE WISE )\T SEEM+ 6BE 7=! >T (!
SOPHI/ IS ! SEMBL.E ( WISDOM )\T !
R1L;Y1 &! SOPHI/ IS "O :O MAKES M"OY F
AN APP>5T B UNR1L WISDOM72 = !M1 !N1 X
IS CLE>LY ESS5TIAL AL 6SEEM 6A3OMPLI% !
TASK (A WISE MAN R ?AN 6A3OMPLI% X )\T
SEEM+ 6D S4 ,6REDUCE X 6A S+LE PO9T (
3TRA/ X IS ! BUSI;S ( "O :O "KS A ?+1
HMF 6AVOID FALLACIES 9 ! SUBJECTS : HE
"KS & 6BE A# 6%[ UP ! MAN :O MAKES !M2 &
( ^! A3OMPLI%;TS ! "O DEP5DS ON !
FACULTY 6R5D] AN ANSW]1 &! O!R ^U !
SECUR+ ( "O4 ,^?1 !N1 :O WD 2 SOPHI/S >E
B.D 6/UDY ! CLASS ( >GU;TS A=ESD3 = X IS
WOR? _! :ILE3 =A FACULTY ( ? K9D W MAKE
A MAN SEEM 6BE WISE1 & ? IS ! PURPOSE !Y
HAPP5 6H 9 VIEW4
  ,CLE>LY1 !N1 "! EXI/S A CLASS ( >GU;TS
( ? K9D1 & X IS AT ? K9D ( ABIL;Y T ^?
AIM :OM WE CALL SOPHI/S4 ,LET U N[ G ON
64CUSS H[ _M K9DS "! >E ( SOPHI/ICAL
>GU;TS1 & H[ _M 9 NUMB] >E ! ELE;TS ( :
? FACULTY IS -POS$1 & H[ _M BRAN*ES "!
HAPP5 6BE ( ? 9QUIRY1 &! O!R FACTORS T
3TRIBUTE 6? >T4

                   #B

  ,( >GU;TS 9 DIALOGUE =M "! >E F\R
CLASSES3
  ,DIDACTIC1 ,DIALECTICAL1 ,EXAM9,N-
>GU;TS1 & ,3T5TI\S >GU;TS4 ,DIDACTIC
>GU;TS >E ^? T R1SON F ! PR9CIPLES
APPROPRIATE 6EA* SUBJECT & N F ! OP9IONS
HELD 0! ANSW]] 7=! LE>N] %D TAKE ?+S ON
TRU/73 DIALECTICAL >GU;TS >E ^? T R1SON
F PREMISSES G5],Y A3EPT$1 6! 3TRADICTORY
(A GIV5 !SIS3 EXAM9,N->GU;TS >E ^? T
R1SON F PREMISSES : >E A3EPT$ 0! ANSW]]
& : ANY "O :O PRET5DS 6POSSESS K (!
SUBJECT IS B.D 6"K-IN :AT MANN]1 HAS BE5
DEF9$ 9 ANO!R TR1TISE3 3T5TI\S >GU;TS >E
^? T R1SON OR APPE> 6R1SON 6A 3CLU.N F
PREMISSES T APPE> 6BE G5],Y A3EPT$ B >E
N S4 ,! SUBJECT1 !N1 ( DEMON/RATIVE
>GU;TS HAS BE5 4CUSS$ 9 ! ,ANALYTICS1
:ILE T ( DIALECTIC >GU;TS & EXAM9,N-
>GU;TS HAS BE5 4CUSS$ ELSE":3 LET U N[
PROCE$ 6SP1K (! >GU;TS US$ 9 -PETI;NS &
3TE/S4

                   #C

  ,F/ WE M/ GRASP ! NUMB] ( AIMS 5T]TA9$
0^? :O >GUE Z -PETITORS & RIVALS 6! D1?4
,^! >E FIVE 9 NUMB]1 REFUT,N1 FALLACY1
P>ADOX1 SOLECISM1 & FIF?LY 6REDUCE !
OPPON5T 9 ! 4CUS.N 6BA2L+-I4E4 63/RA9 HM
6REP1T HMF A NUMB] ( "TS3 OR X IS
6PRODUCE ! APPE>.E ( EA* ( ^! ?+S )\T !
R1L;Y4 ,= !Y *OOSE IF POSSI# PLA9LY
6REFUTE ! O!R "PY1 OR Z ! SECOND BE/ 6%[
T HE IS -MITT+ "S FALLACY1 OR Z A ?IRD
BE/ 6L1D HM 96P>ADOX1 OR F\R?LY 6REDUCE
HM 6SOLECISM1 I4E4 6MAKE ! ANSW]]1 9
3SEQU;E (! >GU;T1 6USE AN UNGRAMMATICAL
EXPRES.N2 OR1 Z A LA/ RESORT1 6MAKE HM
REP1T HMF4

                   #D

  ,"! >E TWO /YLES ( REFUT,N3 = "S DEP5D
ON ! LANGUAGE US$1 :ILE "S >E 9DEP5D5T (
LANGUAGE4 ,^? WAYS ( PRODUC+ ! FALSE
APPE>.E ( AN >GU;T : DEP5D ON LANGUAGE
>E SIX 9 NUMB]3 !Y >E AMBIGU;Y1
AMPHIBOLY1 -B9,N1 DIVI.N ( ^WS1 A35T1 =M
( EXPRES.N4 ,( ? WE MAY ASSURE \RVS BO?
09DUC;N1 & 0SYLLOGI/IC PRO( BAS$ ON ?-&
X MAY 2 ON O!R ASSUMP;NS Z WELL-T ? IS !
NUMB] ( WAYS 9 : WE MI<T FALL 6M1N !
SAME ?+ 0! SAME "NS OR EXPRES.NS4
,>GU;TS S* Z ! FOLL[+ DEP5D ^U AMBIGU;Y4
,8,^? LE>N :O "K3 = X IS ^? :O "K _! LRS
:O LE>N ! LRS DICTAT$ 6!M0'4 ,= TO
,8LE>N0' IS AMBIGU\S2 X SIGNIFIES BO?
,86"U/&0' 0! USE ( K1 & AL ,86ACQUIRE
K0'4 ,AG1 ,8,EVILS >E GD3 = :AT NE$S 6BE
IS GD1 & EVILS M/ NE$S BE0'4 ,= ,8:AT
NE$S 6BE0' HAS A D\# M1N+3 X M1NS :AT IS
9EVITA#1 Z (T5 IS ! CASE ) EVILS1 TOO 7=
EVIL ( "S K9D IS 9EVITA#71 :ILE ON ! O!R
H& WE SAY ( GD ?+S Z WELL T !Y ,8NE$
6BE0'4 ,MOREOV]1 ,8,! SAME MAN IS BO?
S1T$ & /&+ & HE IS BO? SICK & 9 H1L?3 =
X IS HE :O /OOD UP :O IS /&+1 & HE :O IS
RECOV]+ :O IS 9 H1L?3 B X IS ! S1T$ MAN
:O /OOD UP1 &! SICK MAN :O 0 RECOV]+0'4
,= ,8,! SICK MAN DOES S & S0'1 OR ,8HAS
S & S D"O 6HM0' IS N S+LE 9 M1N+3 "S"TS
X M1NS ,8! MAN :O IS SICK OR IS S1T$
N[0'1 "S"TS ,8! MAN :O 0 SICK =M]LY0'4
,( C\RSE1 ! MAN :O 0 RECOV]+ 0 ! SICK
MAN1 :O RE,Y 0 SICK AT ! "T3 B ! MAN :O
IS 9 H1L? IS N SICK AT ! SAME "T3 HE IS
,8! SICK MAN0' 9 ! S5SE N T HE IS SICK
N[1 B T HE 0 SICK =M]LY4 ,EXAMPLES S* Z
! FOLL[+ DEP5D ^U AMPHIBOLY3 ,8,I WI% T
Y ! 5EMY MAY CAPTURE0'4 ,AL ! !SIS1
,8,"! M/ 2 K ( :AT "O "KS0'3 = X IS
POSSI# 0? PHRASE 6M1N T K 2L;GS 6BO? !
"K] &! "KN4 ,AL1 ,8,"! M/ 2 SI<T ( :AT
"O SEES3 "O SEES ! PILL>3 ]GO ! PILL>
HAS SI<T0'4 ,AL1 ,8,:AT Y PROFESS TO-BE1
T Y PROFESS TO-BE3 Y PROFESS A /"O TO-
BE3 ]GO Y PROFESS-TO-BE A /"O0'4 ,AL1
,8,SP1K+ (! SIL5T IS POSSI#0'3 = ,8SP1K+
(! SIL5T0' AL HAS A D\# M1N+3 X MAY M1N
T ! SP1K] IS SIL5T OR T ! ?+S ( : HE
SP1KS >E S4 ,"! >E ?REE V>IETIES ( ^!
AMBIGUITIES & AMPHIBOLIES3 7#A7 ,:5 EI !
EXPRES.N OR ! "N HAS /RICTLY M ?AN "O
M1N+1 E4G4 AETOS &! ,8DOG0'2 7#B7 :5
0CU/OM WE USE !M S2 7#C7 :5 ^WS T H A
SIMPLE S5SE TAK5 AL"O H M ?AN "O M1N+ 9
-B9,N2 E4G4 ,8"K+ LRS0'4 ,= EA* ^W1 BO?
,8"K+0' & ,8LRS0'1 POSSIBLY HAS A S+LE
M1N+3 B BO? TGR H M ?AN "O-EI T ! LRS
!MVS H K OR T "S"O ELSE HAS X ( !M4
  ,AMPHIBOLY & AMBIGU;Y1 !N1 DEP5D ON ^!
MODES ( SPEE*4 ,^U ! -B9,N ( ^WS "!
DEP5D 9/.ES S* Z ! FOLL[+3 ',A MAN C
WALK :ILE SITT+1 & C WRITE :ILE N
WRIT+0'4 ,=! M1N+ IS N ! SAME IF "O
DIVIDES ! ^WS & IF "O -B9ES !M 9 SAY+ T
,8X IS POSSI# 6WALK-:ILE-SITT+0' & WRITE
:ILE N WRIT+7'4 ,! SAME APPLIES 6! LATT]
PHRASE1 TOO1 IF "O -B9ES ! ^WS ,86WRITE-
:ILE-N-WRIT+0'3 = !N X M1NS T HE HAS !
P[] 6WRITE & N 6WRITE AT ONCE2 ":AS IF
"O DOES N -B9E !M1 X M1NS T :5 HE IS N
WRIT+ HE HAS ! P[] 6WRITE4 ,AL1 ,8,HE N[
IF HE HAS LE>NT 8 LRS0'4 ,MOREOV]1 "! IS
! SAY+ T ,8,"O S+LE ?+ IF Y C C>RY A
CR[D Y C C>RY TOO0'4
  ,^U DIVI.N DEP5D ! PROPOSI;NS T #E IS
#B & #C1 & ODD1 & T ! GRT] IS EQUAL3 = X
IS T AM.T & M 2SS4 ,=! SAME PHRASE WD N
2 ?"\ ALW 6H ! SAME M1N+ :5 DIVID$ & :5
-B9$1 E4G4 ,8,I MADE !E A SLAVE ONCE A
FREE MAN0'1 & ,8,GOD-L ,A*ILLES LEFT
FIFTY A HUNDR$ M50'4
  ,AN >GU;T DEP5D+ ^U A35T X IS N EASY
63/RUCT 9 UNWRITT5 4CUS.N2 9 WRITT5
4CUS.NS & 9 POETRY X IS EASI]4 ,?US
7E4G47 "S P EM5D ,HOM] AG/ ^? :O
CRITICIZE Z UNNATURAL 8 EXPRES.N 6M5 OU
KATAPU!TAI OMBRO4 ,= !Y SOLVE !
DI6ICULTY 0A *ANGE ( A35T1 PRON\NC+ ! OU
) AN ACUT] A35T4 ,AL1 9 ! PASSAGE AB
,AGAMEMNON'S DR1M1 !Y SAY T ,ZEUS DID N
HMF SAY ,8,WE GRANT HM ! FULFIL;T ( 8
PRAY]0'1 B T HE BADE ! DR1M GRANT X4
,9/.ES S* Z ^!1 !N1 TURN ^U ! A35TU,N4
  ,O!RS -E AB [+ 6! =M ( EXPRES.N US$1
:5 :AT IS RE,Y DI6]5T IS EXPRESS$ 9 !
SAME =M1 E4G4 A MASCUL9E ?+ 0A FEM99E
T]M9,N1 OR A FEM99E ?+ 0A MASCUL9E1 OR A
NEUT] 0EI A MASCUL9E OR A FEM99E2 OR1
AG1 :5 A QUAL;Y IS EXPRESS$ 0A T]M9,N
PROP] 6QUANT;Y OR VICE V]SA1 OR :AT IS
ACTIVE 0A PASSIVE ^W1 OR A /ATE 0AN
ACTIVE ^W1 & S =? )! O!R DIVI.NS
PREVI\SLY0' LAID D[N4 ,= X IS POSSI#
6USE AN EXPRES.N 6DENOTE :AT DOES N 2L;G
6! CLASS ( AC;NS AT ALL Z ?\< X DID S
2L;G4 ,?US 7E4G47 ,8FL\RI%+0' IS A ^W :
9 ! =M ( XS EXPRES.N IS L ,8CUTT+0' OR
,8BUILD+0'3 YET ! "O DENOTES A C]TA9
QUAL;Y-I4E4 A C]TA9 3DI;N-:ILE ! O!R
DENOTES A C]TA9 AC;N4 ,9 ! SAME MANN] AL
9 ! O!R 9/.ES4
  ,REFUT,NS1 !N1 T DEP5D ^U LANGUAGE >E
DRAWN F ^! -MON-PLACE RULES4 ,(
FALLACIES1 ON ! O!R H&1 T >E 9DEP5D5T (
LANGUAGE "! >E SEV5 K9DS3

7#A7 T : DEP5DS ^U ,A3ID5T3
7#B7 ! USE ( AN EXPRES.N ABSOLUTELY OR N
  ABSOLUTELY B ) "S QUALIFIC,N ( RESPECT
  OR PLACE1 OR "T1 OR REL,N3
7#C7 T : DEP5DS ^U IGNOR.E ( :AT
  ,8REFUT,N0' IS3
7#D7 T : DEP5DS ^U ! 3SEQU5T3
7#E7 T : DEP5DS ^U ASSUM+ ! ORIG9AL
  3CLU.N3
7#F7 /AT+ Z CAUSE :AT IS N ! CAUSE3
7#G7 ! MAK+ ( M ?AN "O "Q 96"O4

                   #E

  ,FALLACIES1 !N1 T DEP5D ON ,A3ID5T
O3UR :5"E ANY ATTRIBUTE IS CLAIM$ 62L;G
9 L MANN] 6A ?+ & 6XS A3ID5T4 ,= S9CE !
SAME ?+ HAS _M A3ID5TS "! IS NO NECESS;Y
T ALL ! SAME ATTRIBUTES %D 2L;G 6ALL (A
?+'S PR$ICATES & 6_! SUBJECT Z WELL4
,?US 7E4G471 ,8,IF ,CORISCUS 2 DI6]5T F
8MAN01 HE IS DI6]5T F HMF3 = HE IS A
MAN0'3 OR ,8,IF HE 2 DI6]5T F ,SOCRATES1
& ,SOCRATES 2 A MAN1 !N0'1 !Y SAY1 ,8HE
HAS ADMITT$ T ,CORISCUS IS DI6]5T F A
MAN1 2C X S HAPP5S 7A3IDIT7 T ! P]SON F
:OM HE SD T HE 7,CORISCUS7 IS DI6]5T IS
A MAN0'4
  ,^? T DEP5D ON :E!R AN EXPRES.N IS US$
ABSOLUTELY OR 9 A C]TA9 RESPECT & N
/RICTLY1 O3UR :5"E AN EXPRES.N US$ 9 A
"PICUL> S5SE IS TAK5 Z ?\< X 7 US$
ABSOLUTELY1 E4G4 9 ! >GU;T ,8,IF :AT IS
N IS ! OBJECT ( AN OP9ION1 !N :AT IS N
IS0'3 = X IS N ! SAME ?+ ,86BE X0' &
,86BE0' ABSOLUTELY4 ,OR AG1 ,8,:AT IS1
IS N1 IF X IS N A "PICUL> K9D ( 2+1 E4G4
IF X IS N A MAN40' ,= X IS N ! SAME ?+
,8N 6BE X0' & ,8N 6BE0' AT ALL3 X LOOKS
Z IF X W]E1 2C (! CLOSE;S (! EXPRES.N1
I4E4 2C ,86BE X0' IS B LL DI6]5T F
,86BE0'1 & ,8N 6BE X0' F ,8N 6BE0'4
,LIKEWISE AL ) ANY >GU;T T TURNS ^U !
PO9T :E!R AN EXPRES.N IS US$ 9 A C]TA9
RESPECT OR US$ ABSOLUTELY4 ,?US E4G4
,8,SUPPOSE AN ,9DIAN 6BE BLACK ALL OV]1
B :ITE 9 RESPECT ( 8 TEE?2 !N HE IS BO?
:ITE & N :ITE40' ,OR IF BO? "*S 2L;G 9 A
"PICUL> RESPECT1 !N1 !Y SAY1 ,83TR>Y
ATTRIBUTES 2L;G AT ! SAME "T0'4 ,? K9D (
?+ IS 9 "S CASES EASILY SE5 0ANY "O1
E4G4 SUPPOSE A MAN 7 6SECURE ! /ATE;T T
! ,E?IOPIAN IS BLACK1 & 7 !N 6ASK :E!R
HE IS :ITE 9 RESPECT ( 8 TEE?2 & !N1 IF
HE 2 :ITE 9 T RESPECT1 7 6SUPPOSE AT !
3CLU.N ( 8 "QS T "!=E HE _H PROV$
DIALECTIC,Y T HE 0 BO? :ITE & N :ITE4 ,B
9 "S CASES X (T5 PASSES UNDETECT$1 VIZ4
9 ALL CASES ":1 :5"E A /ATE;T IS MADE (
"S?+ 9 A C]TA9 RESPECT1 X WD 2 G5],Y ?"\
T ! ABSOLUTE /ATE;T FOLL[S Z WELL2 & AL
9 ALL CASES ": X IS N EASY 6SEE : (!
ATTRIBUTES "\ 6BE R5D]$ /RICTLY4 ,A
SITU,N ( ? K9D >ISES1 ": BO? ! OPPOSITE
ATTRIBUTES 2L;G ALIKE3 = !N "! IS G5]AL
SUPPORT =! VIEW T "O M/ AGREE ABSOLUTELY
6! ASS];N ( BO?1 OR ( NEI3 E4G4 IF A ?+
IS HALF :ITE & HALF BLACK1 IS X :ITE OR
BLACK8
  ,O!R FALLACIES O3UR 2C ! T]MS ,8PRO(0'
OR ,8REFUT,N0' H N BE5 DEF9$1 & 2C "S?+
IS LEFT \ 9 _! DEF9I;N4 ,= 6REFUTE IS
63TRADICT "O &! SAME ATTRIBUTE-N M]ELY !
"N1 B ! R1L;Y-&A "N T IS N M]ELY
SYNONYM\S B ! SAME "N-& 63FUTE X F !
PROPOSI;NS GRANT$1 NECESS>ILY1 )\T
9CLUD+ 9 ! RECKON+ ! ORIG9AL PO9T 6BE
PROV$1 9 ! SAME RESPECT & REL,N & MANN]
& "T 9 : X 0 ASS]T$4 ,A ,8FALSE ASS];N0'
AB ANY?+ HAS 6BE DEF9$ 9 ! SAME WAY4 ,"S
P1 H["E1 OMIT "S "O (! SD 3DI;NS & GIVE
A M]ELY APP>5T REFUT,N1 %[+ 7E4G47 T !
SAME ?+ IS BO? D\# & N D\#3 = TWO IS D\#
( "O1 B N D\# ( ?REE4 ,OR1 X MAY BE1 !Y
%[ T X IS BO? D\# & N D\# (! SAME ?+1 B
N T X IS S 9 ! SAME RESPECT3 = X IS D\#
9 L5G? B N D\# 9 BR1D?4 ,OR1 X MAY BE1
!Y %[ X 6BE BO? D\# & N D\# (! SAME ?+ &
9 ! SAME RESPECT & MANN]1 B N T X IS S
AT ! SAME "T3 & "!=E _! REFUT,N IS M]ELY
APP>5T4 ,"O MI<T1 ) "S VIOL;E1 BR+ ?
FALLACY 96! GR\P ( FALLACIES DEP5D5T ON
LANGUAGE Z WELL4
  ,^? T DEP5D ON ! ASSUMP;N (! ORIG9AL
PO9T 6BE PROV$1 O3UR 9 ! SAME WAY1 & 9 Z
_M WAYS1 Z X IS POSSI# 6BEG ! ORIG9AL
PO9T2 !Y APPE> 6REFUTE 2C M5 LACK ! P[]
6KEEP _! EYES AT ONCE ^U :AT IS ! SAME &
:AT IS DI6]5T4
  ,! REFUT,N : DEP5DS ^U ! 3SEQU5T >ISES
2C P SUPPOSE T ! REL,N ( 3SEQU;E IS
3V]TI#4 ,= :5"E1 SUPPOSE ,A IS1 ;,B
NECESS>ILY IS1 !Y !N SUPPOSE AL T IF ;,B
IS1 ,A NECESS>ILY IS4 ,? IS AL ! S\RCE (
! DECEP;NS T ATT5D OP9IONS BAS$ ON S5SE-
P]CEP;N4 ,= P (T5 SUPPOSE BILE 6BE H"OY
2C H"OY IS ATT5D$ 0A YELL[ COL\R3 AL1
S9CE AF RA9 ! GR.D IS WET 9 3SEQU;E1 WE
SUPPOSE T IF ! GR.D IS WET1 X HAS BE5
RA9+2 ":AS T DOES N NECESS>ILY FOLL[4 ,9
RHETORIC PRO(S F SIGNS >E BAS$ ON
3SEQU;ES4 ,= :5 RHETORICIANS WI% 6%[ T A
MAN IS AN ADULT]]1 !Y TAKE HOLD ( "S
3SEQU;E ( AN ADULT]\S LIFE1 VIZ4 T ! MAN
IS SM>TLY DRESS$1 OR T HE IS OBS]V$ 6W&]
AB AT NI<T4 ,"! >E1 H["E1 _M P ( :OM ^!
?+S >E TRUE1 :ILE ! *>GE 9 "Q IS UNTRUE4
,X HAPP5S L ? AL 9 R1L R1SON+2 E4G4
,MELISSUS' >GU;T1 T ! UNIV]SE IS ET]NAL1
ASSUMES T ! UNIV]SE HAS N -E 6BE 7= F
:AT IS N NO?+ CD POSSIBLY -E 6BE7 & T
:AT HAS -E 6BE HAS D"O S F A F/ 2G9N+4
,IF1 "!=E1 ! UNIV]SE HAS N -E 6BE1 X HAS
NO F/ 2G9N+1 & IS "!=E ET]NAL4 ,B ? DOES
N NECESS>ILY FOLL[3 = EV5 IF :AT HAS -E
6BE ALW HAS A F/ 2G9N+1 X DOES N AL
FOLL[ T :AT HAS A F/ 2G9N+ HAS -E 6BE2
ANY M ?AN X FOLL[S T IF A MAN 9 A FEV] 2
HOT1 A MAN :O IS HOT M/ 2 9 A FEV]4
  ,! REFUT,N : DEP5DS ^U TR1T+ Z CAUSE
:AT IS N A CAUSE1 O3URS :5"E :AT IS N A
CAUSE IS 9S]T$ 9 ! >GU;T1 Z ?\< !
REFUT,N DEP5D$ ^U X4 ,? K9D ( ?+ HAPP5S
9 >GU;TS T R1SON AD IMPOSSI#3 = 9 ^! WE
>E B.D 6DEMOLI% "O (! PREMISSES4 ,IF1
!N1 ! FALSE CAUSE 2 RECKON$ 9 AM;G ! "QS
T >E NEC 6E/ABLI% ! RESULT+
IMPOSSIBIL;Y1 X W (T5 2 ?"\ T ! REFUT,N
DEP5DS ^U X1 E4G4 9 ! PRO( T ! ,8S\L0' &
,8LIFE0' >E N ! SAME3 = IF -+-TO-BE 2
3TR>Y 6P]I%+1 !N A "PICUL> =M ( P]I%+ W
H A "PICUL> =M ( -+-TO-BE Z XS 3TR>Y3 N[
D1? IS A "PICUL> =M ( P]I%+ & IS 3TR>Y
6LIFE3 LIFE1 "!=E1 IS A -+ TO-BE1 &
6LIVE IS 6-E-TO-BE4 ,B ? IS IMPOSSI#3
ACLY1 ! ,8S\L0' & ,8LIFE0' >E N ! SAME4
,N[ ? IS N PROV$3 =! IMPOSSIBIL;Y
RESULTS ALL ! SAME1 EV5 IF "O DOES N SAY
T LIFE IS ! SAME Z ! S\L1 B M]ELY SAYS T
LIFE IS 3TR>Y 6D1?1 : IS A =M ( P]I%+1 &
T P]I%+ HAS ,8-+-TO-BE0' Z XS 3TR>Y4
,>GU;TS ( T K9D1 !N1 ?\< N 9CONCLUSIVE
ABSOLUTELY1 >E 9CONCLUSIVE 9 REL,N 6!
PROPOS$ 3CLU.N4 ,AL EV5 ! "Q]S !MVS (T5
FAIL Q Z M* 6SEE A PO9T ( T K9D4
  ,S*1 !N1 >E ! >GU;TS T DEP5D ^U !
3SEQU5T & ^U FALSE CAUSE4 ,^? T DEP5D ^U
! MAK+ ( TWO "QS 96"O O3UR :5"E !
PLURAL;Y IS UNDETECT$ &A S+LE ANSW] IS
RETURN$ Z IF 6A S+LE "Q4 ,N[1 9 "S
CASES1 X IS EASY 6SEE T "! IS M ?AN "O1
& T AN ANSW] IS N 6BE GIV51 E4G4 ,8,DOES
! E>? 3SI/ ( SEA1 OR ! SKY80' ,B 9 "S
CASES X IS LESS EASY1 & !N P TR1T ! "Q Z
"O1 & EI 3FESS _! DEF1T 0FAIL+ 6ANSW] !
"Q1 OR >E EXPOS$ 6AN APP>5T REFUT,N4
,?US ,8,IS ;,A & IS ;,B A MAN80'
,8,YES40' ,8,!N IF ANY "O HITS ;,A &
;,B1 HE W /RIKE A MAN0' 7S+UL>71'NOT
M50' 7PLURAL74 ,OR AG1 ": "P IS GD & "P
BAD1 ,8IS ! :OLE GD OR BAD80' ,= :I*"E
HE SAYS1 X IS POSSI# T HE MI<T 2 ?"\
6EXPOSE HMF 6AN APP>5T REFUT,N OR 6MAKE
AN APP>5TLY FALSE /ATE;T3 = 6SAY T "S?+
IS GD : IS N GD1 OR N GD : IS GD1 IS
6MAKE A FALSE /ATE;T4 ,"S"TS1 H["E1
A4I;NAL PREMISSES MAY ACTU,Y GIVE RISE
6A G5U9E REFUT,N2 E4G4 SUPPOSE A MAN 7
6GRANT T ! DESCRIP;NS ,8:ITE0' &
,8NAK$0' & ,8BL0' APPLY 6"O ?+ & 6A
NUMB] ( ?+S 9 A L S5SE4 ,= IF ,8BL0'
DESCRIBES A ?+ T _C SEE ?\< NATURE
DESIGN$ X 6SEE1 X W AL DESCRIBE ?+S T _C
SEE ?\< NATURE DESIGN$ !M 6D S4 ,:5"E1
!N1 "O ?+ C SEE :ILE ANO!R _C1 !Y W EI
BO? 2 A# 6SEE OR ELSE BO? 2 BL2 : IS
IMPOSSI#4

                   #F

  ,! "R WAY1 !N1 IS EI 6DIVIDE APP>5T
PRO(S & REFUT,NS Z ABV1 OR ELSE 6REF] !M
ALL 6IGNOR.E ( :AT ,8REFUT,N0' IS1 &
MAKE T \R />T+-PO9T3 = X IS POSSI#
6ANALYSE ALL ! A=ESD MODES ( FALLACY
96BR1*ES (! DEF9I;N (A REFUT,N4 ,9 ! F/
PLACE1 WE MAY SEE IF !Y >E 9CONCLUSIVE3
=! 3CLU.N "\ 6RESULT F ! PREMISSES LAID
D[N1 S Z 6-PEL U NECESS>ILY 6/ATE X & N
M]ELY 6SEEM 6-PEL U4 ,NEXT WE %D AL TAKE
! DEF9I;N BIT 0BIT1 & TRY ! FALLACY
"!BY4 ,=(! FALLACIES T 3SI/ 9 LANGUAGE1
"S DEP5D ^U A D\# M1N+1 E4G4 AMBIGU;Y (
^WS &( PHRASES1 &! FALLACY ( L V]BAL =MS
7= WE HABITU,Y SP1K ( "EY?+ Z ?\< X 7 A
"PICUL> SUB/.E7-:ILE FALLACIES ( -B9,N &
DIVI.N & A35T >ISE 2C ! PHRASE 9 "Q OR !
T]M Z ALT]$ IS N ! SAME Z 0 9T5D$4 ,EV5
?1 H["E1 %D 2 ! SAME1 J Z ! ?+ SIGNIFI$
%D 2 Z WELL1 IF A REFUT,N OR PRO( IS 6BE
E6ECT$2 E4G4 IF ! PO9T 3C]NS A D\#T1 !N
Y %D DRAW ! 3CLU.N (A ,8D\#T0'1 N (A
,8CLOAK0'4 ,=! =M] 3CLU.N AL WD 2 TRUE1
B X HAS N BE5 PROV$2 WE NE$ A FUR!R "Q
6%[ T ,8D\#T0' M1NS ! SAME ?+1 9 ORD]
6SATISFY ANY "O :O ASKS :Y Y ?9K YR PO9T
PROV$4
  ,FALLACIES T DEP5D ON ,A3ID5T >E CLE>
CASES ( IGNORATIO EL5*I :5 ONCE ,8PRO(0'
HAS BE5 DEF9$4 ,=! SAME DEF9I;N "\ 6HOLD
GD ( ,8REFUT,N0' TOO1 EXCEPT T A M5;N (
,8! 3TRADICTORY0' IS "H A4$3 =A REFUT,N
IS A PRO( (! 3TRADICTORY4 ,IF1 !N1 "! IS
NO PRO( Z REG>DS AN A3ID5T ( ANY?+1 "!
IS NO REFUT,N4 ,= SUPPOS+1 :5 ;,A & ;,B
>E1 ;,C M/ NECESS>ILY BE1 & ;,C IS :ITE1
"! IS NO NECESS;Y = X 6BE :ITE ON A3.T (
! SYLLOGISM4 ,S1 IF ! TRIANGLE HAS XS
ANGLES EQUAL 6TWO "R-ANGLES1 & X HAPP5S
6BE A FIGURE1 OR ! SIMPLE/ ELE;T OR />T+
PO9T1 X IS N 2C X IS A FIGURE OR A />T+
PO9T OR SIMPLE/ ELE;T T X HAS ? "*4 ,=!
DEMON/R,N PROVES ! PO9T AB X N QUA
FIGURE OR QUA SIMPLE/ ELE;T1 B QUA
TRIANGLE4 ,LIKEWISE AL 9 O!R CASES4 ,IF1
!N1 REFUT,N IS A PRO(1 AN >GU;T : >GU$
P] A3ID5S CD N 2 A REFUT,N4 ,X IS1 H["E1
J 9 ? T ! EXP]TS & M5 ( SCI;E G5],Y SU6]
REFUT,N AT ! H& (! UNSCI5TIFIC3 =! LATT]
MEET ! SCI5TI/S ) R1SON+S 3/ITUT$ P]
A3ID5S2 &! SCI5TI/S = LACK (! P[] 6DRAW
4T9C;NS EI SAY ,8,YES0' 6_! "QS1 OR ELSE
P SUPPOSE !M 6H SD ,8,YES0'1 AL? !Y H N4
  ,^? T DEP5D ^U :E!R "S?+ IS SD 9 A
C]TA9 RESPECT ONLY OR SD ABSOLUTELY1 >E
CLE> CASES ( IGNORATIO EL5*I 2C !
A6IRM,N &! D5IAL >E N 3C]N$ )! SAME
PO9T4 ,=( ,8:ITE 9 A C]TA9 RESPECT0' !
NEG,N IS ,8N :ITE 9 A C]TA9 RESPECT0'1
:ILE ( ,8:ITE ABSOLUTELY0' X IS ,8N
:ITE1 ABSOLUTELY0'4 ,IF1 !N1 A MAN TR1TS
! ADMIS.N T A ?+ IS ,8:ITE 9 A C]TA9
RESPECT0' Z ?\< X 7 SD 6BE :ITE
ABSOLUTELY1 HE DOES N E6ECT A REFUT,N1 B
M]ELY APPE>S 6D S [+ 6IGNOR.E ( :AT
REFUT,N IS4
  ,! CLE>E/ CASES ( ALL1 H["E1 >E ^? T 7
PREVI\SLY DESCRIB$0' Z DEP5D+ ^U !
DEF9I;N (A ,8REFUT,N0'3 & ? IS AL :Y !Y
7 CALL$ 0T "N4 ,=! APPE>.E (A REFUT,N IS
PRODUC$ 2C (! OMIS.N 9 ! DEF9I;N1 & IF
WE DIVIDE FALLACIES 9 ! ABV MANN]1 WE "\
6SET ,8,DEFECTIVE DEF9I;N0' Z A -MON M>K
^U !M ALL4
  ,^? T DEP5D ^U ! ASSUMP;N (! ORIG9AL
PO9T & ^U /AT+ Z ! CAUSE :AT IS N !
CAUSE1 >E CLE>LY %[N 6BE CASES (
IGNORATIO EL5*I "? ! DEF9I;N "!(4 ,=!
3CLU.N "\ 6-E AB ,82C ^! ?+S >E S0'1 & ?
DOES N HAPP5 ": ! PREMISSES >E N CAUSES
( X3 & AG X %D -E AB )\T TAK+ 96A3.T !
ORIG9AL PO9T1 & ? IS N ! CASE ) ^?
>GU;TS : DEP5D ^U BE7+ ! ORIG9AL PO9T4
  ,^? T DEP5D ^U ! ASSUMP;N (! ORIG9AL
PO9T & ^U /AT+ Z ! CAUSE :AT IS N !
CAUSE1 >E CLE>LY %[N 6BE CASES (
IGNORATIO EL5*I "? ! DEF9I;N "!(4 ,=!
3CLU.N "\ 6-E AB ,82C ^! ?+S >E S0'1 & ?
DOES N HAPP5 ": ! PREMISSES >E N CAUSES
( X3 & AG X %D -E AB )\T TAK+ 96A3.T !
ORIG9AL PO9T1 & ? IS N ! CASE ) ^?
>GU;TS : DEP5D ^U BE7+ ! ORIG9AL PO9T4
  ,^? T DEP5D ^U ! 3SEQU5T >E A BRAN* (
,A3ID5T3 =! 3SEQU5T IS AN A3ID5T1 ONLY X
DI6]S F ! A3ID5T 9 ?1 T Y MAY SECURE AN
ADMIS.N (! A3ID5T 9 ! CASE ( "O ?+ ONLY
7E4G4 ! ID5T;Y (A YELL[ ?+ & H"OY &(A
:ITE ?+ & SWAN71 ":AS ! 3SEQU5T ALW
9VOLVES M ?AN "O ?+3 = WE CLAIM T ?+S T
>E ! SAME Z "O &! SAME ?+ >E AL ! SAME Z
"O ANO!R1 & ? IS ! GR.D (A REFUT,N
DEP5D5T ON ! 3SEQU5T4 ,X IS1 H["E1 N ALW
TRUE1 E4G4 SUPPOSE T & ;,B >E ! SAME Z
;,C P] A3ID5S2 = BO? ,8SN[0' &! ,8SWAN0'
>E ! SAME Z "S?+ :ITE0'4 ,OR AG1 Z 9
,MELISSUS' >GU;T1 A MAN ASSUMES T TO ,8H
BE5 G5]AT$0' & TO ,8H A 2G9N+0' >E !
SAME ?+1 OR TO ,82COME EQUAL0' & TO
,8ASSUME ! SAME MAGNITUDE0'4 ,= 2C :AT
HAS BE5 G5]AT$ HAS A 2G9N+1 HE CLAIMS AL
T :AT HAS A 2G9N+ HAS BE5 G5]AT$1 &
>GUES Z ?\< BO? :AT HAS BE5 G5]AT$ & :AT
IS F9ITE 7 ! SAME 2C EA* HAS A 2G9N+4
,LIKEWISE AL 9 ! CASE ( ?+S T >E MADE
EQUAL HE ASSUMES T IF ?+S T ASSUME "O &!
SAME MAGNITUDE 2COME EQUAL1 !N AL ?+S T
2COME EQUAL ASSUME "O MAGNITUDE3 I4E4 HE
ASSUMES ! 3SEQU5T4 ,9ASM*1 !N1 Z A
REFUT,N DEP5D+ ON A3ID5T 3SI/S 9 IGNOR.E
( :AT A REFUT,N IS1 CLE>LY S AL DOES A
REFUT,N DEP5D+ ON ! 3SEQU5T4 ,WE % H
FUR!R 6EXAM9E ? 9 ANO!R WAY Z WELL4
  ,^? FALLACIES T DEP5D ^U ! MAK+ (
S"EAL "QS 96"O 3SI/ 9 \R FAILURE 64SECT
! DEF9I;N ( ,8PROPOSI;N0'4 ,=A PROPOSI;N
IS A S+LE /ATE;T AB A S+LE ?+4 ,=! SAME
DEF9I;N APPLIES TO ,8"O S+LE ?+ ONLY0' &
6! ,8?+0'1 SIMPLY1 E4G4 TO ,8MAN0' & TO
,8"O S+LE MAN ONLY0' & LIKEWISE AL 9 O!R
CASES4 ,IF1 !N1 A ,8S+LE PROPOSI;N0' 2
"O : CLAIMS A S+LE ?+ (A S+LE ?+1 A
,8PROPOSI;N0'1 SIMPLY1 W AL 2 ! PUTT+ (A
"Q ( T K9D4 ,N[ S9CE A PRO( />TS F
PROPOSI;NS & REFUT,N IS A PRO(1 REFUT,N1
TOO1 W />T F PROPOSI;NS4 ,IF1 !N1 A
PROPOSI;N IS A S+LE /ATE;T AB A S+LE ?+1
X IS OBVI\S T ? FALLACY TOO 3SI/S 9
IGNOR.E ( :AT A REFUT,N IS3 = 9 X :AT IS
N A PROPOSI;N APPE>S 6BE "O4 ,IF1 !N1 !
ANSW]] HAS RETURN$ AN ANSW] Z ?\< 6A
S+LE "Q1 "! W 2 A REFUT,N2 :ILE IF HE
HAS RETURN$ "O N RE,Y B APP>5TLY1 "! W 2
AN APP>5T REFUT,N ( 8 !SIS4 ,ALL ! TYPES
( FALLACY1 !N1 FALL "U IGNOR.E ( :AT A
REFUT,N IS1 "S ( !M 2C ! 3TRADIC;N1 : IS
! 4T9CTIVE M>K (A REFUT,N1 IS M]ELY
APP>5T1 &! RE/ FAIL+ 63=M 6! DEF9I;N (A
PRO(4

                   #G

  ,! DECEP;N -ES AB 9 ! CASE ( >GU;TS T
DEP5D ON AMBIGU;Y ( ^WS &( PHRASES 2C WE
>E UNA# 6DIVIDE ! AMBIGU\S T]M 7= "S
T]MS X IS N EASY 6DIVIDE1 E4G4 ,8UN;Y0'1
,82+0'1 & ,8SAME;S0'71 :ILE 9 ^? T DEP5D
ON -B9,N & DIVI.N1 X IS 2C WE SUPPOSE T
X MAKES NO DI6];E :E!R ! PHRASE 2 -B9$
OR DIVID$1 Z IS 9DE$ ! CASE ) MO/
PHRASES4 ,LIKEWISE AL ) ^? T DEP5D ON
A35T3 =! L[]+ OR RAIS+ (! VOICE ^U A
PHRASE IS ?"\ N 6ALT] XS M1N+-) ANY
PHRASE1 OR N ) _M4 ,) ^? T DEP5D ON ! (
EXPRES.N X IS 2C (! LIKE;S ( EXPRES.N4
,= X IS H>D 64T+UI% :AT K9D ( ?+S >E
SIGNIFI$ 0! SAME & :AT 0DI6]5T K9DS (
EXPRES.N3 =A MAN :O C D ? IS PRACTIC,Y
NEXT DOOR 6! "U/&+ (! TRU?4 ,A SPECIAL
R1SON :Y A MAN IS LIA# 6BE HURRI$
96ASS5T 6! FALLACY IS T WE SUPPOSE E
PR$ICATE ( "EY?+ 6BE AN 9DIVIDUAL ?+1 &
WE "U/& X Z 2+ "O )! ?+3 & WE "!=E TR1T
X Z A SUB/.E3 = X IS 6T : IS "O )A ?+ OR
SUB/.E1 Z AL 6SUB/.E XF1 T ,89DIVIDU,Y0'
& ,82+0' >E DEEM$ 62L;G 9 ! FULLE/ S5SE4
,= ? R1SON1 TOO1 ? TYPE ( FALLACY IS 6BE
RANK$ AM;G ^? T DEP5D ON LANGUAGE2 9 !
F/ PLACE1 2C ! DECEP;N IS E6ECT$ ! M
R1DILY :5 WE >E 9QUIR+ 96A PRO#M 9 -PANY
) O!RS ?AN :5 WE D S 0\RVS 7= AN 9QUIRY
) ANO!R P]SON IS C>RI$ ON 0M1NS ( SPEE*1
":AS AN 9QUIRY 0"OF IS C>RI$ ON Q Z M*
0M1NS (! OBJECT XF72 SECONDLY A MAN IS
LIA# 6BE DCVD1 EV5 :5 9QUIR+ 0HMF1 :5 HE
TAKES SPEE* Z ! BASIS ( 8 9QUIRY3
MOREOV] ! DECEP;N >ISES \ (! LIKE;S 7(
TWO DI6]5T ?+S71 &! LIKE;S >ISES \ (!
LANGUAGE4 ,) ^? FALLACIES T DEP5D ^U
,A3ID5T1 DECEP;N -ES AB 2C WE _C 4T+UI%
! SAME;S & O!R;S ( T]MS1 I4E4 _! UN;Y &
MULTIPLIC;Y1 OR :AT K9DS ( PR$ICATE H
ALL ! SAME A3ID5TS Z _! SUBJECT4
,LIKEWISE AL ) ^? T DEP5D ON ! ,3SEQU5T3
=! 3SEQU5T IS A BRAN* ( ,A3ID5T4
,MOREOV]1 9 _M CASES APPE>.ES PO9T 6?-&!
CLAIM IS MADE T IF IS 9SEP>A# F ;,B1 S
AL IS ;,B F ,) ^? T DEP5D ^U AN
IMP]FEC;N 9 ! DEF9I;N (A REFUT,N1 &) ^?
T DEP5D ^U ! DI6];E 2T A QUALIFI$ & AN
ABSOLUTE /ATE;T1 ! DECEP;N 3SI/S 9 !
SMALL;S (! DI6];E 9VOLV$2 = WE TR1T !
LIMIT,N 6! "PICUL> ?+ OR RESPECT OR
MANN] OR "T Z A4+ NO?+ 6! M1N+1 & S
GRANT ! /ATE;T UNIV]S,Y4 ,LIKEWISE AL 9
! CASE ( ^? T ASSUME ! ORIG9AL PO9T1 &
^? ( FALSE CAUSE1 & ALL T TR1T A NUMB] (
"QS Z "O3 = 9 ALL ( !M ! DECEP;N LIES 9
! SMALL;S (! DI6];E3 = \R FAILURE 6BE Q
EXACT 9 \R DEF9I;N ( ,8PREMISS0' &(
,8PRO(0' IS DUE 6! A=ESD R1SON4


                   #H

  ,S9CE WE "K ON H[ _M PO9TS APP>5T
SYLLOGISMS DEP5D1 WE "K AL ON H[ _M
SOPHI/ICAL SYLLOGISMS & REFUT,NS MAY
DEP5D4 ,0A SOPHI/ICAL REFUT,N &
SYLLOGISM ,I M1N N ONLY A SYLLOGISM OR
REFUT,N : APPE>S 6BE VALID B IS N1 B AL
"O :1 ?\< X IS VALID1 ONLY APPE>S 6BE
APPROPRIATE 6! ?+ 9 "Q4 ,^! >E ^? : FAIL
6REFUTE & PROVE P 6BE IGNORANT AC 6!
NATURE (! ?+ 9 "Q1 : 0 ! FUNC;N (! >T (
EXAM9,N4 ,N[ ! >T ( EXAM9+ IS A BRAN* (
DIALECTIC3 & ? MAY PROVE A FALSE 3CLU.N
2C (! IGNOR.E (! ANSW]]4 ,SOPHI/IC
REFUT,NS ON ! O!R H&1 EV5 ?\< !Y PROVE !
3TRADICTORY ( 8 !SIS1 D N MAKE CLE> :E!R
HE IS IGNORANT3 = SOPHI/S 5TANGLE !
SCI5TI/ Z WELL ) ^! >GU;TS4
  ,T WE "K !M 0! SAME L9E ( 9QUIRY IS
CLE>3 =! SAME 3SID],NS : MAKE X APPE>
6AN AUDI;E T ! PO9TS REQUIR$ =! PRO( 7
ASK$ 9 ! "QS & T ! 3CLU.N 0 PROV$1 WD
MAKE ! ANSW]] ?9K S Z WELL1 S T FALSE
PRO( W O3UR "? ALL OR "S ( ^! M1NS3 =
:AT A MAN HAS N BE5 ASK$ B ?9KS HE HAS
GRANT$1 HE WD AL GRANT IF HE 7 ASK$4 ,(
C\RSE1 9 "S CASES ! MO;T WE ADD ! MISS+
"Q1 WE AL %[ UP XS FALS;Y1 E4G4 9
FALLACIES T DEP5D ON LANGUAGE & ON
SOLECISM4 ,IF !N1 FALLACI\S PRO(S (!
3TRADICTORY (A !SIS DEP5D ON _! APPE>+
6REFUTE1 X IS CLE> T ! 3SID],NS ON : BO?
PRO(S ( FALSE 3CLU.NS & AN APP>5T
REFUT,N DEP5D M/ 2 ! SAME 9 NUMB]4 ,N[
AN APP>5T REFUT,N DEP5DS ^U ! ELE;TS
9VOLV$ 9 A G5U9E "O3 =! FAILURE ( "O OR
O!R ( ^! M/ MAKE ! REFUT,N M]ELY APP>5T1
E4G4 T : DEP5DS ON ! FAILURE (! 3CLU.N
6FOLL[ F ! >GU;T 7! >GU;T AD IMPOSSI#7 &
T : TR1TS TWO "QS Z "O & S DEP5DS ^U A
FLAW 9 ! PREMISS1 & T : DEP5DS ON !
SUB/ITU;N ( AN A3ID5T = AN ESS5TIAL
ATTRIBUTE1 &-A BRAN* (! LA/-T : DEP5DS
^U ! 3SEQU5T3 M OV]1 ! 3CLU.N MAY FOLL[
N 9 FACT B ONLY V]B,Y3 !N1 9/1D ( PROV+
! 3TRADICTORY UNIV]S,Y & 9 ! SAME
RESPECT & REL,N & MANN]1 ! FALLACY MAY 2
DEP5D5T ON "S LIMIT ( EXT5T OR ON "O OR
O!R ( ^! QUALIFIC,NS3 MOREOV]1 "! IS !
ASSUMP;N (! ORIG9AL PO9T 6BE PROV$1 9
VIOL,N (! CLAUSE ,8)\T RECKON+ 9 !
ORIG9AL PO9T0'4 ,?US WE %D H ! NUMB] (
3SID],NS ON : ! FALLACI\S PRO(S DEP5D3 =
!Y CD N DEP5D ON M1 B ALL W DEP5D ON !
PO9TS A=ESD4
  ,A SOPHI/ICAL REFUT,N IS A REFUT,N N
ABSOLUTELY B RELATIVELY 6"S "O3 & S IS A
PRO(1 9 ! SAME WAY4 ,= UN.S T : DEP5DS
^U AMBIGU;Y ASSUMES T ! AMBIGU\S T]M HAS
A S+LE M1N+1 & T : DEP5DS ON L V]BAL =MS
ASSUMES T SUB/.E IS ! ONLY CATEGORY1 &!
RE/ 9 ! SAME WAY1 "! W 2 NEI REFUT,NS
NOR PRO(S1 EI ABSOLUTELY OR RELATIVELY
6! ANSW]]3 ":AS IF !Y D ASSUME ^! ?+S1
!Y W /&1 RELATIVELY 6! ANSW]]2 B
ABSOLUTELY !Y W N /&3 = !Y H N SECUR$ A
/ATE;T T DOES H A S+LE M1N+1 B ONLY "O T
APPE>S 6H1 & T ONLY F ? "PICUL> MAN4

                   #I

  ,! NUMB] ( 3SID],NS ON : DEP5D !
REFUT,NS ( ^? :O >E REFUT$1 WE "\ N 6TRY
6GRASP )\T A K ( "EY?+ T IS4 ,?1 H["E1
IS N ! PROV9CE ( ANY SPECIAL /UDY3 =
POSSIBLY ! SCI;ES >E 9F9ITE 9 NUMB]1 S T
OBVI\SLY DEMON/R,NS MAY 2 9F9ITE TOO4
,N[ REFUT,NS MAY 2 TRUE Z WELL Z FALSE3
= :5"E X IS POSSI# 6DEMON/RATE "S?+1 X
IS AL POSSI# 6REFUTE ! MAN :O MA9TA9S !
3TRADICTORY (! TRU?2 E4G4 IF A MAN HAS
/AT$ T ! DIAGONAL IS -M5SURATE )! SIDE (
! SQU>E1 "O MI<T REFUTE HM 0DEMON/RAT+ T
X IS 9COMM5SURATE4 ,ACLY1 6EXHAU/ ALL
POSSI# REFUT,NS WE % H 6H SCI5TIFIC K (
"EY?+3 = "S REFUT,NS DEP5D ^U !
PR9CIPLES T RULE 9 GEOMETRY &! 3CLU.NS T
FOLL[ F ^!1 O!RS ^U ^? T RULE 9 M$IC9E1
& O!RS ^U ^? (! O!R SCI;ES4 ,=! MATT] (
T1 ! FALSE REFUT,NS LIKEWISE 2L;G 6!
NUMB] (! 9F9ITE3 = AC 6E >T "! IS FALSE
PRO(1 E4G4 AC 6GEOMETRY "! IS FALSE
GEOMETRICAL PRO(1 & AC 6M$IC9E "! IS
FALSE M$ICAL PRO(4 ,BY ,8AC 6! >T0'1 ,I
M1N ,8AC 6! PR9CIPLES ( X0'4 ,CLE>LY1
!N1 X IS N ( ALL REFUT,NS1 B ONLY ( ^? T
DEP5D ^U DIALECTIC T WE NE$ 6GRASP !
-MON-PLACE RULES3 = ^! /& 9 A -MON REL,N
6E >T & FACULTY4 ,& Z REG>DS ! REFUT,N T
IS AC 6"O OR O!R (! "PICUL> SCI;ES X IS
! TASK ( T "PICUL> SCI5TI/ 6EXAM9E :E!R
X IS M]ELY APP>5T )\T 2+ R1L1 &1 IF X 2
R1L1 :AT IS ! R1SON = X3 ":AS X IS !
BUSI;S ( DIALECTICIANS S 6EXAM9E !
REFUT,N T PROCE$S F ! -MON F/ PR9CIPLES
T FALL "U NO "PICUL> SPECIAL /UDY4 ,= IF
WE GRASP ! />T+PO9TS (! A3EPT$ PRO(S ON
ANY SUBJECT :AT"E WE GRASP ^? (!
REFUT,NS CURR5T ON T SUBJECT4 ,=A
REFUT,N IS ! PRO( (! 3TRADICTORY (A GIV5
!SIS1 S T EI "O OR TWO PRO(S (!
3TRADICTORY 3/ITUTE A REFUT,N4 ,WE
GRASP1 !N1 ! NUMB] ( 3SID],NS ON : ALL
S* DEP5D3 IF1 H["E1 WE GRASP ?1 WE AL
GRASP _! SOLU;NS Z WELL2 =! OBJEC;NS 6^!
>E ! SOLU;NS ( !M4 ,WE AL GRASP ! NUMB]
( 3SID],NS ON : ^? REFUT,NS DEP5D1 T >E
M]ELY APP>5T-APP>5T1 ,I M1N1 N 6"EYBODY1
B 6P (A C]TA9 /AMP2 = X IS AN 9DEF9ITE
TASK IF "O IS 69QUIRE H[ _M >E !
3SID],NS T MAKE !M APP>5T 6! MAN 9 !
/REET4 ,ACLY X IS CLE> T !
DIALECTICIAN'S BUSI;S IS 6BE A# 6GRASP
ON H[ _M 3SID],NS DEP5DS ! =M,N1 "? !
-MON F/ PR9CIPLES1 (A REFUT,N T IS EI
R1L OR APP>5T1 I4E4 EI DIALECTICAL OR
APP>5TLY DIALECTICAL1 OR SUITA# = AN
EXAM9,N4

                  #AJ

  ,X IS NO TRUE 4T9C;N 2T >GU;TS : "S P
DRAW :5 !Y SAY T "S >GU;TS >E DIRECT$
AG/ ! EXPRES.N1 & O!RS AG/ ! ?"\
EXPRESS$3 = X IS ABSURD 6SUPPOSE T "S
>GU;TS >E DIRECT$ AG/ ! EXPRES.N & O!RS
AG/ ! ?"\1 & T !Y >E N ! SAME4 ,= :AT IS
FAILURE 6DIRECT AN >GU;T AG/ ! ?"\
EXCEPT :AT O3URS :5"E A MAN DOES N 9 US+
! EXPRES.N ?9K X 6BE US$ 9 8 "Q 9 ! SAME
S5SE 9 : ! P]SON "Q$ GRANT$ X8 ,& ? IS !
SAME ?+ Z 6DIRECT ! >GU;T AG/ !
EXPRES.N4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 X IS DIRECT$ AG/
! ?"\ :5"E A MAN USES ! EXPRES.N 9 !
SAME S5SE : ! ANSW]] _H 9 M9D :5 HE
GRANT$ X4 ,IF N[ ANY 7I4E4 BO? ! "Q] &!
P]SON "Q$71 9 D1L+ ) AN EXPRES.N ) M ?AN
"O M1N+1 7 6SUPPOSE X 6H "O M1N+-Z E4G4
X MAY 2 T ,8,2+0' & ,8,"O0' H _M M1N+S1
& YET BO? ! ANSW]] ANSW]S &! "Q] PUTS 8
"Q SUPPOS+ X 6BE "O1 &! >GU;T IS 6!
E6ECT T ,8,ALL ?+S >E "O'-W ? 4CUS.N 2
DIRECT$ ANY M AG/ ! EXPRES.N ?AN AG/ !
?"\ (! P]SON "Q$8 ,IF1 ON ! O!R H&1 "O (
!M SUPPOSES ! EXPRES.N 6H _M M1N+S1 X IS
CLE> T S* A 4CUS.N W N 2 DIRECT$ AG/ !
?"\4 ,S* 2+ ! M1N+S (! PHRASES 9 "Q1 !Y
CLE>LY _C DESCRIBE TWO SEP>ATE CLASSES (
>GU;T4 ,=1 9 ! F/ PLACE1 X IS POSSI# =
ANY S* >GU;T Z BE>S M ?AN "O M1N+ 6BE
DIRECT$ AG/ ! EXPRES.N & AG/ ! ?"\1 &
NEXT X IS POSSI# = ANY >GU;T :ATSO"E2 =!
FACT ( 2+ DIRECT$ AG/ ! ?"\ 3SI/S N 9 !
NATURE (! >GU;T1 B 9 ! SPECIAL ATTITUDE
(! ANSW]] T[>DS ! PO9TS HE 3C$ES4 ,NEXT1
ALL ( !M MAY 2 DIRECT$ 6! EXPRES.N4 ,=
,86BE DIRECT$ AG/ ! EXPRES.N0' M1NS 9 ?
DOCTR9E ,8N 6BE DIRECT$ AG/ ! ?"\0'4 ,=
IF N ALL >E DIRECT$ AG/ EI EXPRES.N OR
?"\1 "! W 2 C]TA9 O!R >GU;TS DIRECT$ NEI
AG/ ! EXPRES.N NOR AG/ ! ?"\1 ":AS !Y
SAY T ALL M/ 2 "O OR ! O!R1 & DIVIDE !M
ALL Z DIRECT$ EI AG/ ! EXPRES.N OR AG/ !
?"\1 :ILE O!RS 7!Y SAY7 "! >E N"O4 ,B 9
PO9T ( FACT ^? T DEP5D ON M]E EXPRES.N
>E ONLY A BRAN* ( ^? SYLLOGISMS T DEP5D
ON A MULTIPLIC;Y ( M1N+S4 ,=! ABSURD
/ATE;T HAS ACTU,Y BE5 MADE T ! DESCRIP;N
,8DEP5D5T ON M]E EXPRES.N0' DESCRIBES
ALL ! >GU;TS T DEP5D ON LANGUAGE3 ":AS
"S ( ^! >E FALLACIES N 2C ! ANSW]]
ADOPTS A "PICUL> ATTITUDE T[>DS !M1 B 2C
! >GU;T XF 9VOLVES ! ASK+ (A "Q S* Z
BE>S M ?AN "O M1N+4
  ,X IS1 TOO1 ALT ABSURD 64CUSS ,REFUT,N
)\T F/ 4CUSS+ ,PRO(3 =A REFUT,N IS A
PRO(1 S T "O "\ 64CUSS PRO( Z WELL 2F
DESCRIB+ FALSE REFUT,N3 =A REFUT,N ( T
K9D IS A M]ELY APP>5T PRO( (!
3TRADICTORY (A !SIS4 ,ACLY1 ! R1SON (!
FALS;Y W 2 EI 9 ! PRO( OR 9 ! 3TRADIC;N
7= M5;N (! ,83TRADIC;N0' M/ 2 A4$71 :ILE
"S"TS X IS 9 BO?1 IF ! REFUT,N 2 M]ELY
APP>5T4 ,9 ! >GU;T T SP1K+ (! SIL5T IS
POSSI# X LIES 9 ! 3TRADIC;N1 N 9 ! PRO(2
9 ! >GU;T T "O C GIVE :AT "O DOES N
POSSESS1 X LIES 9 BO?2 9 ! PRO( T
,HOM]'S POEM IS A FIGURE "? XS 2+ A
CYCLE X LIES 9 ! PRO(4 ,AN >GU;T T DOES
N FAIL 9 EI RESPECT IS A TRUE PRO(4
  ,B1 6RETURN 6! PO9T :;E \R >GU;T
DIGRESS$1 >E MA!MATICAL R1SON+S DIRECT$
AG/ ! ?"\1 OR N8 ,& IF ANY "O ?9KS
,8TRIANGLE0' 6BE A ^W ) _M M1N+S1 &
GRANT$ X 9 "S DI6]5T S5SE F ! FIGURE : 0
PROV$ 63TA9 TWO "R ANGLES1 HAS ! "Q] "H
DIRECT$ 8 >GU;T AG/ ! ?"\ (! =M] OR N8
  ,MOREOV]1 IF ! EXPRES.N BE>S _M S5SES1
:ILE ! ANSW]] DOES N "U/& OR SUPPOSE X
6H !M1 SURELY ! "Q] "H HAS DIRECT$ 8
>GU;T AG/ 8 ?"\6 ,OR H[ ELSE "\ HE 6PUT
8 "Q EXCEPT 0SU7E/+ A 4T9C;N-SUPPOSE
"O'S "Q 6BE SP1K+ (! SIL5T POSSI# OR
N8'-Z FOLL[S1 ,8,IS ! ANSW] 8,NO0 9 "O
S5SE1 B 8,YES0 9 ANO!R80' ,IF1 !N1 ANY
"O 7 6ANSW] T X 0 N POSSI# 9 ANY S5SE &!
O!R 7 6>GUE T X WAS1 HAS N 8 >GU;T BE5
DIRECT$ AG/ ! ?"\ (! ANSW]]8 ,YET 8
>GU;T IS SUPPOS$ 6BE "O ( ^? T DEP5D ON
! EXPRES.N4 ,"! IS N1 !N1 ANY DEF9ITE
K9D ( >GU;TS T IS DIRECT$ AG/ ! ?"\4 ,"S
>GU;TS >E1 9DE$1 DIRECT$ AG/ ! EXPRES.N3
B ^! >E N ALL EV5 APP>5T REFUT,NS1 LET
AL"O ALL REFUT,NS4 ,= "! >E AL APP>5T
REFUT,NS : D N DEP5D ^U LANGUAGE1 E4G4
^? T DEP5D ^U A3ID5T1 & O!RS4
  ,IF1 H["E1 ANY "O CLAIMS T "O %D
ACTU,Y DRAW ! 4T9C;N1 & SAY1 ,8,BY
8SP1K+ (! SIL5T0 ,I M1N1 9 "O S5SE ? & 9
! O!R S5SE T0'1 SURELY 6CLAIM ? IS 9 !
F/ PLACE ABSURD 7= "S"TS ! "Q] DOES N
SEE ! AMBIGU;Y ( 8 "Q1 & HE _C POSSIBLY
DRAW A 4T9C;N : HE DOES N ?9K 6BE "!73 9
! SECOND PLACE1 :AT ELSE B ? W DIDACTIC
>GU;T BE8 ,= X W MAKE MANIFE/ ! /ATE (!
CASE 6"O :O HAS N"E 3SID]$1 & DOES N "K
OR SUPPOSE T "! IS ANY O!R M1N+ B "O4 ,=
:AT IS "! 6PREV5T ! SAME ?+ AL HAPP5+ 6U
9 CASES ": "! IS NO D\# M1N+8 ,8,>E !
UNITS 9 F\R EQUAL 6! TWOS8 ,OBS]VE T !
TWOS >E 3TA9$ 9 F\R 9 "O S5SE 9 ? WAY1 9
ANO!R S5SE 9 T0'4 ,AL1 ,8,IS ! K (
3TR>IES "O OR N8 ,OBS]VE T "S 3TR>IES >E
"KN1 :ILE O!RS >E UN"KN0'4 ,?US ! MAN :O
MAKES ? CLAIM SEEMS 6BE UNAW>E (! DI6];E
2T DIDACTIC & DIALECTICAL >GU;T1 &(!
FACT T :ILE HE :O >GUES DIDACTIC,Y %D N
ASK "QS B MAKE ?+S CLE> HMF1 ! O!R %D
M]ELY ASK "QS4
                  #AA

  ,MOREOV]1 6CLAIM A ,8,YES0' OR ,8,NO0'
ANSW] IS ! BUSI;S N (A MAN :O IS %[+
"S?+1 B ( "O :O IS HOLD+ AN EXAM9,N4 ,=!
>T ( EXAM9+ IS A BRAN* ( DIALECTIC & HAS
9 VIEW N ! MAN :O HAS K1 B ! IGNORANT
PRET5D]4 ,HE1 !N1 IS A DIALECTICIAN :O
REG>DS ! -MON PR9CIPLES ) _! APPLIC,N 6!
"PICUL> MATT] 9 H&1 :ILE HE :O ONLY
APPE>S 6D ? IS A SOPHI/4 ,N[ = 3T5TI\S &
SOPHI/ICAL R1SON+3 7#A7 "O S* IS A M]ELY
APP>5T R1SON+1 ON SUBJECTS ON :
DIALECTICAL R1SON+ IS ! PROP] ME?OD (
EXAM9,N1 EV5 ?\< XS 3CLU.N 2 TRUE3 = X
MISL1DS U 9 REG>D 6! CAUSE3 AL 7#B7 "!
>E ^? MISR1SON+S : D N 3=M 6! L9E (
9QUIRY PROP] 6! "PICUL> SUBJECT1 B >E
G5],Y ?"\ 63=M 6! >T 9 "Q4 ,= FALSE
DIAGRAMS ( GEOMETRICAL FIGURES >E N
3T5TI\S 7=! RESULT+ FALLACIES 3=M 6!
SUBJECT (! >T7-ANY M ?AN IS ANY FALSE
DIAGRAM T MAY 2 (F]$ 9 PRO( (A TRU?-E4G4
,HIPPOCRATES' FIGURE OR ! SQU>+ (!
CIRCLE 0M1NS (! LUNULES4 ,B ,BRYSON'S
ME?OD ( SQU>+ ! CIRCLE1 EV5 IF ! CIRCLE
IS "!BY SQU>$1 IS / SOPHI/ICAL 2C X DOES
N 3=M 6! SUBJECT 9 H&4 ,S1 !N1 ANY M]ELY
APP>5T R1SON+ AB ^! ?+S IS A 3T5TI\S
>GU;T1 & ANY R1SON+ T M]ELY APPE>S 63=M
6! SUBJECT 9 H&1 EV5 ?\< X 2 G5U9E
R1SON+1 IS A 3T5TI\S >GU;T3 = X IS M]ELY
APP>5T 9 XS 3=M;Y 6! SUBJECT-MATT]1 S T
X IS DECEPTIVE & PLAYS F\L4 ,= J Z A F\L
9 A RACE IS A DEF9ITE TYPE ( FAULT1 & IS
A K9D ( F\L FI<T+1 S ! >T ( 3T5TI\S
R1SON+ IS F\L FI<T+ 9 4PUT,N3 = 9 ! =M]
CASE ^? :O >E RESOLV$ 6W9 AT ALL CO/S
SNAT* AT "EY?+1 & S 9 ! LATT] CASE D
3T5TI\S R1SON]S4 ,^?1 !N1 :O D ? 9 ORD]
6W9 ! M]E VICTORY >E G5],Y 3SID]$ 6BE
3T5TI\S & QU>REL"S P]SONS1 :ILE ^? :O D
X 6W9 A REPUT,N )A VIEW 6MAK+ M"OY >E
SOPHI/ICAL4 ,=! >T ( SOPHI/RY IS1 Z WE
SD10' A K9D ( >T ( M"OY-MAK+ F A M]ELY
APP>5T WISDOM1 & ? IS :Y !Y AIM AT A
M]ELY APP>5T DEMON/R,N3 & QU>REL"S
P]SONS & SOPHI/S BO? EMPLOY ! SAME
>GU;TS1 B N )! SAME MOTIVES3 &! SAME
>GU;T W 2 SOPHI/ICAL & 3T5TI\S1 B N 9 !
SAME RESPECT2 R1 X W 2 3T5TI\S 9 S F> Z
XS AIM IS AN APP>5T VICTORY1 :ILE 9 S F>
Z XS AIM IS AN APP>5T WISDOM1 X W 2
SOPHI/ICAL3 =! >T ( SOPHI/RY IS A C]TA9
APPE>.E ( WISDOM )\T ! R1L;Y4 ,! 3T5TI\S
>GU;T /&S 9 "S:AT ! SAME REL,N 6!
DIALECTICAL Z ! DRAW] ( FALSE DIAGRAMS
6! GEOMETRICIAN2 = X 2GUILES 0MISR1SON+
F ! SAME PR9CIPLES Z DIALECTIC USES1 J Z
! DRAW] (A FALSE DIAGRAM 2GUILES !
GEOMETRICIAN4 ,B ":AS ! LATT] IS N A
3T5TI\S R1SON]1 2C HE BASES 8 FALSE
DIAGRAM ON ! PR9CIPLES & 3CLU.NS T FALL
"U ! >T ( GEOMETRY1 ! >GU;T : IS
SUBORD9ATE 6! PR9CIPLES ( DIALECTIC W
YET CLE>LY 2 3T5TI\S Z REG>DS O!R
SUBJECTS4 ,?US1 E4G4 ?\< ! SQU>+ (!
CIRCLE 0M1NS (! LUNULES IS N 3T5TI\S1
,BRYSON'S SOLU;N IS 3T5TI\S3 &! =M]
>GU;T _C 2 ADAPT$ 6ANY SUBJECT EXCEPT
GEOMETRY1 2C X PROCE$S F PR9CIPLES T >E
PECULI> 6GEOMETRY1 ":AS ! LATT] C 2
ADAPT$ Z AN >GU;T AG/ ALL ! NUMB] ( P :O
D N "K :AT IS OR IS N POSSI# 9 EA*
"PICUL> 3TEXT3 = X W APPLY 6!M ALL4 ,OR
"! IS ! ME?OD ":BY ,ANTIPHON SQU>$ !
CIRCLE4 ,OR AG1 AN >GU;T : D5I$ T X 0
BETT] 6TAKE A WALK AF D9N]1 2C ( ,Z5O'S
>GU;T1 WD N 2 A PROP] >GU;T =A DOCTOR1
2C ,Z5O'S >GU;T IS ( G5]AL APPLIC,N4
,IF1 !N1 ! REL,N (! 3T5TI\S >GU;T 6!
DIALECTICAL 7 EXACTLY L T (! DRAW] (
FALSE DIAGRAMS 6! GEOMETRICIAN1 A
3T5TI\S >GU;T ^U ! A=ESD SUBJECTS CD N H
EXI/$4 ,B1 Z X IS1 ! DIALECTICAL >GU;T
IS N 3C]N$ ) ANY DEF9ITE K9D ( 2+1 NOR
DOES X %[ ANY?+1 NOR IS X EV5 AN >GU;T
S* Z WE F9D 9 ! G5]AL PHILOSOPHY ( 2+4
,= ALL 2+S >E N 3TA9$ 9 ANY "O K9D1 NOR1
IF !Y W]E1 CD !Y POSSIBLY FALL "U ! SAME
PR9CIPLES4 ,ACLY1 NO >T T IS A ME?OD (
%[+ ! NATURE ( ANY?+ PROCE$S 0ASK+ "QS3
= X DOES N P]MIT A MAN 6GRANT :I*"E HE
LIKES (! TWO ALT]NATIVES 9 ! "Q3 = !Y W
N BO? ( !M YIELD A PRO(4 ,DIALECTIC1 ON
! O!R H&1 DOES PROCE$ 0"Q+1 ":AS IF X 7
3C]N$ 6%[ ?+S1 X WD H REFRA9$ F PUTT+
"QS1 EV5 IF N AB "EY?+1 AT L1/ AB ! F/
PR9CIPLES &! SPECIAL PR9CIPLES T APPLY
6! "PICUL> SUBJECT 9 H&4 ,= SUPPOSE !
ANSW]] N 6GRANT ^!1 X WD !N NO L;G] H _H
ANY GR.DS F : 6>GUE ANY L;G] AG/ !
OBJEC;N4 ,DIALECTIC IS AT ! SAME "T A
MODE ( EXAM9,N Z WELL4 ,= NEI IS ! >T (
EXAM9,N AN A3OMPLI%;T (! SAME K9D Z
GEOMETRY1 B "O : A MAN MAY POSSESS1 EV5
?\< HE HAS N K4 ,= X IS POSSI# EV5 = "O
)\T K 6HOLD AN EXAM9,N ( "O :O IS )\T K1
IF AL ! LATT] GRANTS HM PO9TS TAK5 N F
?+ T HE "KS OR F ! SPECIAL PR9CIPLES (!
SUBJECT "U 4CUS.N B F ALL T RANGE (
3SEQU;ES ATTA*+ 6! SUBJECT : A MAN MAY
9DE$ "K )\T "K+ ! !ORY (! SUBJECT1 B :
IF HE D N "K1 HE IS B.D 6BE IGNORANT (!
!ORY4 ,S !N CLE>LY ! >T ( EXAM9+ DOES N
3SI/ 9 K ( ANY DEF9ITE SUBJECT4 ,= ?
R1SON1 TOO1 X D1LS ) "EY?+3 = E ,8!ORY0'
( ANY?+ EMPLOYS AL C]TA9 -MON PR9CIPLES4
,H;E "EYBODY1 9CLUD+ EV5 AMATEURS1 MAKES
USE 9 A WAY ( DIALECTIC &! PRACTICE (
EXAM9+3 = ALL "UTAKE 6"S EXT5T A R\<
TRIAL ( ^? :O PROFESS 6"K ?+S4 ,:AT
S]VES !M "H IS ! G5]AL PR9CIPLES3 = !Y
"K ^! ( !MVS J Z WELL Z ! SCI5TI/1 EV5
IF 9 :AT !Y SAY !Y SEEM 6! LATT] 6G
WILDLY A/RAY F !M4 ,ALL1 !N1 >E 5GAG$ 9
REFUT,N2 = !Y TAKE A H& Z AMATEURS 9 !
SAME TASK ) : DIALECTIC IS 3C]N$
PROFES.N,Y2 & HE IS A DIALECTICIAN :O
EXAM9ES 0! HELP (A !ORY ( R1SON+4 ,N[ "!
>E _M ID5TICAL PR9CIPLES : >E TRUE (
"EY?+1 ?\< !Y >E N S* Z 63/ITUTE A
"PICUL> NATURE1 I4E4 A "PICUL> K9D ( 2+1
B >E L NEGATIVE T]MS1 :ILE O!R PR9CIPLES
>E N ( ? K9D B >E SPECIAL 6"PICUL>
SUBJECTS2 ACLY X IS POSSI# F ^! G5]AL
PR9CIPLES 6HOLD AN EXAM9,N ON "EY?+1 & T
"! %D 2 A DEF9ITE >T ( S DO+1 &1
MOREOV]1 AN >T : IS N (! SAME K9D Z ^? :
DEMON/RATE4 ,? IS :Y ! 3T5TI\S R1SON]
DOES N /& 9 ! SAME 3DI;N 9 ALL RESPECTS
Z ! DRAW] (A FALSE DIAGRAM3 =! 3T5TI\S
R1SON] W N 2 GIV5 6MISR1SON+ F ANY
DEF9ITE CLASS ( PR9CIPLES1 B W D1L ) E
CLASS4
  ,^!1 !N1 >E ! TYPES ( SOPHI/ICAL
REFUT,NS3 & T X 2L;GS 6! DIALECTICIAN
6/UDY ^!1 & 6BE A# 6E6ECT !M1 IS N
DI6ICULT 6SEE3 =! 9VE/IG,N ( PREMISSES
-PRISES ! :OLE ( ? /UDY4
                  #AB

  ,S M*1 !N1 = APP>5T REFUT,NS4 ,Z = %[+
T ! ANSW]] IS -MITT+ "S FALLACY1 & DRAW+
8 >GU;T 96P>ADOX-= ? 0 ! SECOND ITEM (!
SOPHI/'S PROGRAMME-IN ! F/ PLACE1 !N1 ?
IS BE/ BR"\ AB 0A C]TA9 MANN] ( "Q+ & "?
! "Q4 ,= 6PUT ! "Q )\T FRAM+ X ) REF];E
6ANY DEF9ITE SUBJECT IS A GD BAIT = ^!
PURPOSES3 = P >E M 9CL9$ 6MAKE MISTAKES
:5 !Y TALK AT L>GE1 & !Y TALK AT L>GE :5
!Y H NO DEF9ITE SUBJECT 2F !M4 ,AL !
PUTT+ ( S"EAL "QS1 EV5 ?\< ! POSI;N AG/
: "O IS >GU+ 2 Q DEF9ITE1 &! CLAIM T HE
% SAY ONLY :AT HE ?9KS1 CR1TE ABUNDANT
OPPORTUN;Y = DRAW+ HM 96P>ADOX OR
FALLACY1 & AL1 :E!R 6ANY ( ^! "QS HE
REPLIES ,8,YES0' OR REPLIES ,8,NO0'1 (
L1D+ HM ON 6/ATE;TS AG/ : "O IS WELL (F
=A L9E ( ATTACK4 ,N[A"DS1 H["E1 M5 >E
LESS A# 6PLAY F\L 0^! M1NS ?AN !Y 7
=M]LY3 = P REJO9 )! "Q1 ,8,:AT HAS T 6D
)! ORIG9AL SUBJECT80' ,X IS1 TOO1 AN
ELE;T>Y RULE = ELICIT+ "S FALLACY OR
P>ADOX T "O %D N"E PUT A 3TROV]SIAL "Q
/RAI<T AWAY1 B SAY T "O PUTS X F ! WI% =
9=M,N3 =! PROCESS ( 9QUIRY ?US 9VIT$
GIVES ROOM = AN ATTACK4
  ,A RULE SPECI,Y APPROPRIATE = %[+ UP A
FALLACY IS ! SOPHI/IC RULE1 T "O %D DRAW
! ANSW]] ON 6! K9D ( /ATE;TS AG/ : "O IS
WELL SUPPLI$ ) >GU;TS3 ? C 2 D"O BO?
PROP]LY & IMPROP]LY1 Z 0 SD 2F40' ,AG1
6DRAW A P>ADOXICAL /ATE;T1 LOOK & SEE
6:AT S*OOL ( PHILOSOPH]S ! P]SON >GU+ )
Y 2L;GS1 & !N "Q HM Z 6"S PO9T ":9 _!
DOCTR9E IS P>ADOXICAL 6MO/ P3 =) E S*OOL
"! IS "S PO9T ( T K9D4 ,X IS AN ELE;T>Y
RULE 9 ^! MATT]S 6H A COLLEC;N (!
SPECIAL ,8!SES0' (! V>I\S S*OOLS AM;G YR
PROPOSI;NS4 ,! SOLU;N RECOMM5D$ Z
APPROPRIATE "H1 TOO1 IS 6PO9T \ T !
P>ADOX DOES N -E AB 2C (! >GU;T3 ":AS ?
IS :AT 8 OPPON5T ALW RE,Y WANTS4
  ,MOREOV]1 >GUE F M5'S WI%ES & _!
PROFESS$ OP9IONS4 ,= P D N WI% ! SAME
?+S Z !Y SAY !Y WI%3 !Y SAY :AT W LOOK
BE/1 ":AS !Y WI% :AT APPE>S 6BE 6_!
9T]E/3 E4G4 !Y SAY T A MAN "\ 6DIE NOBLY
R ?AN 6LIVE 9 PL1SURE1 & 6LIVE 9 H"O/
POV]TY R ?AN 9 4HON\RA# RI*ES2 B !Y WI%
! OPPOSITE4 ,ACLY1 A MAN :O SP1KS AC
6HIS WI%ES M/ 2 L$ 96/AT+ ! PROFESS$
OP9IONS ( P1 :ILE HE :O SP1KS AC 6^! M/
2 L$ 96ADMITT+ ^? T P KEEP HI45 AWAY3 =
9 EI CASE !Y >E B.D 69TRODUCE A P>ADOX2
= !Y W SP1K 3TR>Y EI 6M5'S PROFESS$ OR
6_! HI45 OP9IONS4
  ,! WIDE/ RANGE ( -MON-PLACE >GU;T =
L1D+ M5 96P>ADOXICAL /ATE;T IS T :
DEP5DS ON ! /&>DS ( ,NATURE &(! ,LAW3 X
IS S T BO? ,CALLICLES IS DRAWN Z >GU+ 9
! ,GORGIAS1 & T ALL ! M5 ( OLD SUPPOS$ !
RESULT 6-E AB3 = NATURE 7!Y SD7 & LAW >E
OPPOSITES1 & JU/ICE IS A F9E ?+ 0A LEGAL
/&>D1 B N 0T ( NATURE4 ,ACLY1 !Y SD1 !
MAN ^: /ATE;T AGREES )! /&>D ( NATURE Y
%D MEET 0! /&>D (! LAW1 B ! MAN :O
AGREES )! LAW 0L1D+ HM 6! FACTS (
NATURE3 = 9 BO? WAYS P>ADOXICAL /ATE;TS
MAY 2 -MITT$4 ,9 _! VIEW ! /&>D ( NATURE
0 ! TRU?1 :ILE T (! LAW 0 ! OP9ION HELD
0! MAJOR;Y4 ,S T X IS CLE> T !Y1 TOO1
US$ 6TRY EI 6REFUTE ! ANSW]] OR 6MAKE HM
MAKE P>ADOXICAL /ATE;TS1 J Z ! M5 ( TO-
"D D Z WELL4
  ,"S "QS >E S* T 9 BO? =MS ! ANSW] IS
P>ADOXICAL2 E4G4 ,8,"\ "O 6OBEY ! WISE
OR "O'S "F80' & ,8,"\ "O 6D :AT IS
EXP$I5T OR :AT IS J80' & ,8,IS X PREF]A#
6SU6] 9JU/ICE OR 6D AN 9JURY80' ,Y %D
L1D P1 !N1 96VIEWS OPPOSITE 6! MAJOR;Y &
6! PHILOSOPH]S2 IF ANY "O SP1KS Z D !
EXP]T R1SON]S1 L1D HM 96OPPOSI;N 6!
MAJOR;Y1 :ILE IF HE SP1KS Z D ! MAJOR;Y1
!N 96OPPOSI;N 6! R1SON]S4 ,= "S SAY T (
NECESS;Y ! HAPPY MAN IS J1 ":AS X IS
P>ADOXICAL 6! _M T A K+ %D 2 HAPPY4
,6L1D A MAN 96P>ADOXES ( ? SORT IS !
SAME Z 6L1D HM 96! OPPOSI;N (! /&>DS (
NATURE & LAW3 =! LAW REPRES5TS ! OP9ION
(! MAJOR;Y1 ":AS PHILOSOPH]S SP1K AC 6!
/&>D ( NATURE &! TRU?4

                  #AC

  ,P>ADOXES1 !N1 Y %D SEEK 6ELICIT 0M1NS
( ^! -MON-PLACE RULES4 ,N[ Z = MAK+ ANY
"O BAB#1 WE H ALR SD :AT WE M1N BY
,86BAB#0'4 ,? IS ! OBJECT 9 VIEW 9 ALL
>GU;TS (! FOLL[+ K9D3 ,IF X IS ALL !
SAME 6/ATE A T]M & 6/ATE XS DEF9I;N1 !
,8D\#0' & ,8D\# ( HALF0' >E ! SAME3 IF
!N ,8D\#0' 2 ! ,8D\# ( HALF0'1 X W 2 !
,8D\# ( HALF ( HALF0'4 ,& IF1 9/1D (
,8D\#0'1 ,8D\# ( HALF0' 2 AG PUT1 !N !
SAME EXPRES.N W 2 REP1T$ ?REE "TS1 ,8D\#
( HALF ( HALF ( HALF0'4 ,AL ,8DESIRE IS
(! PL1SANT1 ISN'T X80' DESIRE IS CON,N =
! PL1SANT3 ACLY1 ,8DESIRE0' IS ,8CON,N =
! PL1SANT =! PL1SANT0'4
  ,ALL >GU;TS ( ? K9D O3UR 9 D1L+ 7#A7 )
ANY RELATIVE T]MS : N ONLY H RELATIVE
G5]A1 B >E AL !MVS RELATIVE1 & >E R5D]$
9 REL,N 6"O &! SAME ?+1 Z E4G4 CON,N IS
CON,N = "S?+1 & DESIRE IS DESIRE ( "S?+1
& D\# IS D\# ( "S?+1 I4E4 D\# ( HALF3 AL
9 D1L+ 7#B7 ) ANY T]MS :1 ?\< !Y 2 N
RELATIVE T]MS AT ALL1 YET H _! SUB/.E1
VIZ4 ! ?+S ( : !Y >E ! /ATES OR A6EC;NS
OR :AT N1 9DICAT$ Z WELL 9 _! DEF9I;N1
!Y 2+ PR$ICAT$ ( ^! ?+S4 ,?US E4G4
,8ODD0' IS A ,8NUMB] 3TA9+ A MI4LE0'3 B
"! IS AN ,8ODD NUMB]0'3 "!=E "! IS A
,8NUMB]-3TA9+-A-MI4LE NUMB]0'4 ,AL1 IF
SNUB;S 2 A 3CAV;Y (! NOSE1 & "! 2 A SNUB
NOSE1 "! IS "!=E A ,83CAVE-NOSE NOSE0'4
  ,P "S"TS APPE> 6PRODUCE ? RESULT1 )\T
RE,Y PRODUC+ X1 2C !Y D N ADD ! "Q :E!R
! EXPRES.N ,8D\#0'1 J 0XF1 HAS ANY M1N+
OR NO1 & IF S1 :E!R X HAS ! SAME M1N+1
OR A DI6]5T "O2 B !Y DRAW _! 3CLU.N
/RAI<T AWAY4 ,/ X SEEMS1 9ASM* Z ! ^W IS
! SAME1 6H ! SAME M1N+ Z WELL4

                  #AD

  ,WE H SD 2F :AT K9D ( ?+ ,8SOLECISM0'
IS40' ,X IS POSSI# BO? 6-MIT X1 & 6SEEM
6D S )\T DO+ S1 & 6D S )\T SEEM+ 6D S4
,SUPPOSE1 Z ,PROTAGORAS US$ 6SAY T M5IS
7,8WRA?0'7 & PELEX 7,8HELMET0'7 >E
MASCUL9E3 AC 6HM A MAN :O CALLS WRA? A
,8DE/RUCTRESS0' 7\LOM557 -MITS A
SOLECISM1 ?\< HE DOES N SEEM 6D S 6O!R
P1 ": HE :O CALLS X A ,8DE/RUCTOR0'
7\LOM5ON7 -MITS NO SOLECISM ?\< HE SEEMS
6D S4 ,X IS CLE>1 !N1 T ANY "O CD
PRODUCE ? E6ECT 0>T Z WELL3 &= ? R1SON
_M >GU;TS SEEM 6L1D 6SOLECISM : D N RE,Y
D S1 Z HAPP5S 9 ! CASE ( REFUT,NS4
  ,ALM ALL APP>5T SOLECISMS DEP5D ^U !
^W ,8?0' 7TODE71 & ^U O3A.NS :5 !
9FLEC;N DENOTES NEI A MASCUL9E NOR A
FEM99E OBJECT B A NEUT]4 ,= ,8HE0'
7\TOS7 SIGNIFIES A MASCUL9E1 & ,8%E0'
7AUTE7 FEM99E2 B ,8?0' 7T\TO71 ?\< M1NT
6SIGNIFY A NEUT]1 (T5 AL SIGNIFIES "O OR
O!R (! =M]3 E4G4 ,8,:AT IS ?80' ,8,X IS
,CALLIOPE0'2 ,8X IS A LOG0'2 ,8X IS
,CORISCUS0'4 ,N[ 9 ! MASCUL9E & FEM99E !
9FLEC;NS >E ALL DI6]5T1 ":AS 9 ! NEUT]
"S >E & "S >E N4 ,(T51 !N1 :5 ,8?0'
7T\TO7 HAS BE5 GRANT$1 P R1SON Z IF
,8HM0' 7T\TON7 _H BE5 SD3 & LIKEWISE AL
!Y SUB/ITUTE "O 9FLEC;N = ANO!R4 ,!
FALLACY -ES AB 2C ,8?0' 7T\TO7 IS A -MON
=M ( S"EAL 9FLEC;NS3 = ,8?0' SIGNIFIES
"S"TS ,8HE0' 7\TOS7 & "S"TS ,8HM0'
7T\TON74 ,X %D SIGNIFY !M ALT]NATELY2 :5
-B9$ ) ,8IS0' 7E/I7 X %D 2 ,8HE0'1 :ILE
) ,82+0' X %D 2 ,8HM0'3 E4G4 ,8,CORISCUS
7,KOPISKOS7 IS0'1 B ,82+ ,CORISCUS0'
7,KOPISKON74 ,X HAPP5S 9 ! SAME WAY 9 !
CASE ( FEM99E N\NS Z WELL1 & 9 ! CASE (!
S-CALL$ ,8*ATTELS0' T H FEM99E OR
MASCUL9E DESIGN,NS4 ,= ONLY ^? "NS : 5D
9 O & ;N1 H ! DESIGN,N PROP] 6A *ATTEL1
E4G4 XULON 7,8LOG0'71 S*O9ION
7,8ROPE0'72 ^? : D N 5D S H T (A
MASCUL9E OR FEM99E OBJECT1 ?\< "S ( !M
WE APPLY 6*ATTELS3 E4G4 ASKOS
7,8W9ESK9'7 IS A MASCUL9E N\N1 & KL9E
7,8B$0'7 A FEM99E4 ,= ? R1SON 9 CASES (
? K9D Z WELL "! W 2 A DI6];E (! SAME
SORT 2T A 3/RUC;N ) ,8IS0' 7E/I7 OR )
,82+0' 76E9AI74 ,AL1 ,SOLECISM RESEM#S 9
A C]TA9 WAY ^? REFUT,NS : >E SD 6DEP5D
ON ! L EXPRES.N ( UNLIKE ?+S4 ,=1 J Z "!
WE -E ^U A MAT]IAL SOLECISM1 S "H WE -E
^U A V]BAL3 = ,8MAN0' IS BO? A ,8MATT]0'
= EXPRES.N & AL A ,8^W0'3 & S IS :ITE0'4
  ,X IS CLE>1 !N1 T = SOLECISMS WE M/
TRY 63/RUCT \R >GU;T \ (! A=ESD
9FLEC;NS4
  ,^!1 !N1 >E ! TYPES ( 3T5TI\S >GU;TS1
&! SUBDIVI.NS ( ^? TYPES1 &! ME?ODS =
3DUCT+ !M A=ESD4 ,B X MAKES NO LL DI6];E
IF ! MAT]IALS = PUTT+ ! "Q 2 >RANG$ 9 A
C]TA9 MANN] )A VIEW 63C1L;T1 Z 9 ! CASE
( DIALECTICS4 ,FOLL[+ !N ^U :AT WE H SD1
? M/ 2 4CUSS$ F/4

                  #AE

  ,)A VIEW !N 6REFUT,N1 "O RES\RCE IS
L5G?-= X IS DI6ICULT 6KEEP S"EAL ?+S 9
VIEW AT ONCE2 & 6SECURE L5G? ! ELE;T>Y
RULES T H BE5 /AT$ 2F0' %D 2 EMPLOY$4
,"O RES\RCE1 ON ! O!R H&1 IS SPE$2 = :5
P >E LEFT 2H !Y LOOK AH1D LESS4
,MOREOV]1 "! IS ANG] & 3T5TI\S;S1 = :5
AGITAT$ "EYBODY IS LESS A# 6TAKE C>E (
HMF4 ,ELE;T>Y RULES = PRODUC+ ANG] >E
6MAKE A %[ (! WI% 6PLAY F\L1 & 6BE ALT
%AME.S4 ,MOREOV]1 "! IS ! PUTT+ ( "O'S
"QS ALT]NATELY1 :E!R "O HAS M ?AN "O
>GU;T L1D+ 6! SAME 3CLU.N1 OR :E!R "O
HAS >GU;TS 6%[ BO? T "S?+ IS S1 & T X IS
N S3 =! RESULT IS T HE HAS 6BE ON 8 GU>D
AT ! SAME "T EI AG/ M ?AN "O L9E1 OR AG/
3TR>Y L9ES1 ( >GU;T4 ,9 G5]AL1 ALL !
ME?ODS DESCRIB$ 2F ( PRODUC+ 3C1L;T >E
USE;L AL = PURPOSES ( 3T5TI\S >GU;T3 =!
OBJECT ( 3C1L;T IS 6AVOID DETEC;N1 &!
OBJECT ( ? IS 6DCV4
  ,6C.T] ^? :O REFUSE 6GRANT :AT"E !Y
SUPPOSE 6HELP "O'S >GU;T1 "O %D PUT ! "Q
NEGATIVELY1 Z ?\< DESIR\S (! OPPOSITE
ANSW]1 OR AT ANY RATE Z ?\< "O PUT ! "Q
)\T PREJUDICE2 = :5 X IS OBSCURE :AT
ANSW] "O WANTS 6SECURE1 P >E LESS
REFRACTORY4 ,AL :51 9 D1L+ ) "PICUL>S1 A
MAN GRANTS ! 9DIVIDUAL CASE1 :5 ! 9DUC;N
IS D"O Y %D (T5 N PUT ! UNIV]SAL Z A "Q1
B TAKE X = GRANT$ & USE X3 = "S"TS P
!MVS SUPPOSE T !Y H GRANT$ X1 & AL APPE>
6! AUDI;E 6H D"O S1 = !Y REMEMB] !
9DUC;N & ASSUME T ! "QS CD N H BE5 PUT =
NO?+4 ,9 CASES ": "! IS NO T]M 69DICATE
! UNIV]SAL1 / Y %D AVAIL YRF (!
RESEMBL.E (! "PICUL>S 6SUIT YR PURPOSE2
= RESEMBL.E (T5 ESCAPES DETEC;N4 ,AL1 )A
VIEW 6OBTA9+ YR PREMISS1 Y "\ 6PUT X 9
YR "Q SIDE 0SIDE ) XS 3TR>Y4 ,E4G4 IF X
7 NEC 6SECURE ! ADMIS.N T ',A MAN %D
OBEY 8 "F 9 "EY?+0'1 ASK ,8,%D A MAN
OBEY 8 P>5TS 9 "EY?+1 OR 4OBEY !M 9
"EY?+80'2 & 6SECURE T ',A NUMB]
MULTIPLI$ 0A L>GE NUMB] IS A L>GE
NUMB]0'1 ASK ,8,%D "O AGREE T X IS A
L>GE NUMB] OR A SMALL "O80' ,= !N1 IF
-PELL$ 6*OOSE1 "O W 2 M 9CL9$ 6?9K X A
L>GE "O3 =! PLAC+ ( _! 3TR>IES CLOSE 2S
!M MAKES ?+S LOOK BIG 6M51 BO?
RELATIVELY & ABSOLUTELY1 & WORSE &
BETT]4
  ,A /R;G APPE>.E ( HAV+ BE5 REFUT$ IS
(T5 PRODUC$ 0! MO/ HI<LY SOPHI/ICAL (
ALL ! UNFAIR TRICKS ( "Q]S1 :5 )\T PROV+
ANY?+1 9/1D ( PUTT+ _! F9AL PROPOSI;N Z
A "Q1 !Y /ATE X Z A 3CLU.N1 Z ?\< !Y _H
PROV$ T ,8,"!=E S-&-S IS N TRUE0'
  ,X IS AL A SOPHI/ICAL TRICK1 :5 A
P>ADOX HAS BE5 LAID D[N1 F/ 6PROPOSE AT
! />T "S VIEW T IS G5],Y A3EPT$1 & !N
CLAIM T ! ANSW]] % ANSW] :AT HE ?9KS AB
X1 & 6PUT "O'S "Q ON MATT]S ( T K9D 9 !
=M ,8,D Y ?9K T '''80' ,= !N1 IF ! "Q 2
TAK5 Z "O (! PREMISSES ( "O'S >GU;T1 EI
A REFUT,N OR A P>ADOX IS B.D 6RESULT2 IF
HE GRANTS ! VIEW1 A REFUT,N2 IF HE
REFUSES 6GRANT X OR EV5 6ADMIT X Z !
RCVD OP9ION1 A P>ADOX2 IF HE REFUSES
6GRANT X1 B ADMITS T X IS ! RCVD OP9ION1
"S?+ V L A REFUT,N1 RESULTS4
  ,MOREOV]1 J Z 9 RHETORICAL 4C\RSES1 S
AL 9 ^? AIM$ AT REFUT,N1 Y %D EXAM9E !
4CREPANCIES (! ANSW]]'S POSI;N EI ) 8 [N
/ATE;TS1 OR ) ^? ( P]SONS :OM HE ADMITS
6SAY & D A"R1 MOREOV] ) ^? ( P :O >E
G5],Y SUPPOS$ 6BE> T K9D ( "*1 OR :O >E
L !M1 OR ) ^? (! MAJOR;Y OR ( ALL M54
,AL J Z ANSW]]S1 TOO1 (T51 :5 !Y >E 9
PROCESS ( 2+ 3FUT$1 DRAW A 4T9C;N1 IF _!
3FUT,N IS J AB 6TAKE PLACE1 S "Q]S AL %D
RESORT 6? F "T 6"T 6C.T] OBJECTORS1
PO9T+ \1 SUPPOS+ T AG/ "O S5SE (! ^WS !
OBJEC;N HOLDS1 B N AG/ ! O!R1 T !Y H
TAK5 X 9 ! LATT] S5SE1 Z E4G4 ,CLEOPHON
DOES 9 ! ,M&ROBULUS4 ,!Y %D AL BR1K (F
_! >GU;T & CUT D[N _! O!R L9ES ( ATTACK1
:ILE 9 ANSW]+1 IF A MAN P]CVS ? 2+ D"O
2FH&1 HE %D PUT 9 8 OBJEC;N & H 8 SAY
F/4 ,"O %D AL L1D ATTACKS "S"TS AG/
POSI;NS O!R ?AN ! "O /AT$1 ON ! "U/OOD
3DI;N T "O _C F9D L9ES ( ATTACK AG/ !
VIEW LAID D[N1 Z ,LYCOPHRON DID :5 ORD]$
6DELIV] A EULOGY ^U ! LYRE4 ,6C.T] ^? :O
DEM& ,8,AG/ :AT >E Y DIRECT+ YR EF=T80'1
S9CE "O IS G5],Y ?"\ B.D 6/ATE ! *>GE
MADE1 :ILE1 ON ! O!R H&1 "S WAYS ( /AT+
X MAKE ! DEF;E TOO EASY1 Y %D /ATE Z YR
AIM ONLY ! G5]AL RESULT T ALW HAPP5S 9
REFUT,NS1 "NLY ! 3TRADIC;N ( 8 !SIS
-VIZ4 T YR EF=T IS 6D5Y :AT HE HAS
A6IRM$1 OR 6A6IRM :AT HE D5I$3 DON'T SAY
T Y >E TRY+ 6%[ T ! K ( 3TR>IES IS1 OR
IS N1 ! SAME4 ,"O M/ N ASK "O'S 3CLU.N 9
! =M (A PREMISS1 :ILE "S 3CLU.NS %D N
EV5 2 PUT Z "QS AT ALL2 "O %D TAKE & USE
X Z GRANT$4

                  #AF

  ,WE H N[ "!=E D1LT )! S\RCES ( "QS1 &!
ME?ODS ( "Q+ 9 3T5TI\S 4PUT,NS3 NEXT WE
H 6SP1K ( ANSW]+1 &( H[ SOLU;NS %D 2
MADE1 &( :AT REQUIRES !M1 &( :AT USE IS
S]V$ 0>GU;TS ( ? K9D4
  ,! USE ( !M1 !N1 IS1 = PHILOSOPHY1
TWOFOLD4 ,= 9 ! F/ PLACE1 S9CE =! MO/ "P
!Y DEP5D ^U ! EXPRES.N1 !Y PUT U 9 A
BETT] 3DI;N = SEE+ 9 H[ _M S5SES ANY T]M
IS US$1 & :AT K9D ( RESEMBL.ES & :AT K9D
( DI6];ES O3UR 2T ?+S & 2T _! "NS4 ,9 !
SECOND PLACE !Y >E USE;L = "O'S [N
P]SONAL RESE>*ES2 =! MAN :O IS EASILY
-MITT$ 6A FALLACY 0"S "O ELSE1 & DOES N
P]CV X1 IS LIKELY 69CUR ? FATE ( HMF AL
ON _M O3A.NS4 ,?IRDLY & LA/LY1 !Y FUR!R
3TRIBUTE 6"O'S REPUT,N1 VIZ4 ! REPUT,N (
2+ WELL TRA9$ 9 "EY?+1 & N 9EXP]I;ED 9
ANY?+3 = T A "PY 6>GU;TS %D F9D FAULT )
!M1 IF HE _C DEF9ITELY PO9T \ _! W1K;S1
CR1TES A SUSPICION1 MAK+ X SEEM Z ?\< X
7 N ! TRU? (! MATT] B M]ELY 9EXP]I;E T
PUT HM \ ( TEMP]4
  ,ANSW]]S MAY CLE>LY SEE H[ 6MEET
>GU;TS ( ? K9D1 IF \R PREVI\S A3.T 0 "R
(! S\RCES :;E FALLACIES CAME1 & AL \R
4T9C;NS ADEQUATE (! =MS ( 4H"O/Y 9 PUTT+
"QS4 ,B X IS N ! SAME ?+ TAKE AN >GU;T 9
"O'S H& & !N 6SEE & SOLVE XS FAULTS1 Z X
IS 6BE A# 6MEET X QKLY :ILE 2+ SUBJECT$
6"QS3 = :AT WE "K1 WE (T5 D N "K 9 A
DI6]5T 3TEXT4 ,MOREOV]1 J Z 9 O!R ?+S
SPE$ IS 5H.ED 0TRA9+1 S X IS ) >GU;TS
TOO1 S T SUPPOS+ WE >E UNPRACTIS$1 EV5
?\< A PO9T 2 CLE> 6U1 WE >E (T5 TOO LATE
=! "R MO;T4 ,"S"TS TOO X HAPP5S Z )
DIAGRAMS2 = "! WE C "S"TS ANALYSE !
FIGURE1 B N 3/RUCT X AG3 S TOO 9
REFUT,NS1 ?\< WE "K ! ?+ ON : ! 3NEXION
(! >GU;T DEP5DS1 WE / >E AT A LOSS
6SPLIT ! >GU;T A"P4

                  #AG

  ,F/ !N1 J Z WE SAY T WE "\ "S"TS
6*OOSE 6PROVE "S?+ 9 ! G5]AL E/IM,N R
?AN 9 TRU?1 S AL WE H "S"TS 6SOLVE
>GU;TS R 9 ! G5]AL E/IM,N ?AN AC 6!
TRU?4 ,= X IS A G5]AL RULE 9 FI<T+
3T5TI\S P]SONS1 6TR1T !M N Z REFUT+1 B Z
M]ELY APPE>+ 6REFUTE3 = WE SAY T !Y
DON'T RE,Y PROVE _! CASE1 S T \R OBJECT
9 CORRECT+ !M M/ 2 64PEL ! APPE>.E ( X4
,= IF REFUT,N 2 AN UNAMBIGU\S 3TRADIC;N
>RIV$ AT F C]TA9 VIEWS1 "! CD 2 NO NE$
6DRAW 4T9C;NS AG/ AMPHIBOLY & AMBIGU;Y3
!Y D N E6ECT A PRO(4 ,! ONLY MOTIVE =
DRAW+ FUR!R 4T9C;NS IS T ! 3CLU.N R1*$
LOOKS L A REFUT,N4 ,:AT1 !N1 WE H 62W>E
(1 IS N 2+ REFUT$1 B SEEM+ 6BE1 2C (
C\RSE ! ASK+ ( AMPHIBOLIES &( "QS T TURN
^U AMBIGU;Y1 & ALL ! O!R TRICKS ( T K9D1
3C1L EV5 A G5U9E REFUT,N1 & MAKE X
UNC]TA9 :O IS REFUT$ & :O IS N4 ,= S9CE
"O HAS ! "R AT ! 5D1 :5 ! 3CLU.N IS
DRAWN1 6SAY T ! ONLY D5IAL MADE ( ,"O'S
/ATE;T IS AMBIGU\S1 NO MATT] H[
PRECISELY HE MAY H A4RESS$ 8 >GU;T 6! V
SAME PO9T Z "OF1 X IS N CLE> :E!R "O HAS
BE5 REFUT$3 = X IS N CLE> :E!R AT ! MO;T
"O IS SP1K+ ! TRU?4 ,IF1 ON ! O!R H&1 "O
_H DRAWN A 4T9C;N1 & "Q$ HM ON !
AMBIGU\S T]M OR ! AMPHIBOLY1 ! REFUT,N
WD N H BE5 A MATT] ( UNC]TA9TY4 ,AL :AT
IS 9CID5T,Y ! OBJECT ( 3T5TI\S >GU]S1
?\< LESS S N[A"DS ?AN =M]LY1 WD H BE5
FULFILL$1 "NLY T ! P]SON "Q$ %D ANSW] EI
,8,YES0' OR ,8,NO0'3 ":AS N[A"DS !
IMPROP] =MS 9 : "Q]S PUT _! "QS -PEL !
"PY "Q$ 6ADD "S?+ 6HIS ANSW] 9 CORREC;N
(! FAULTI;S (! PROPOSI;N Z PUT3 =
C]TA9LY1 IF ! "Q] 4T+UI%ES 8 M1N+
ADEQUATELY1 ! ANSW]] IS B.D 6REPLY EI
,8,YES0' OR ,8,NO0'4
  ,IF ANY "O IS GO+ 6SUPPOSE T AN >GU;T
: TURNS ^U AMBIGU;Y IS A REFUT,N1 X W 2
IMPOSSI# = AN ANSW]] 6ESCAPE 2+ REFUT$ 9
A S5SE3 = 9 ! CASE ( VISI# OBJECTS "O IS
B.D ( NECESS;Y 6D5Y ! T]M "O HAS ASS]T$1
& 6ASS]T :AT "O HAS D5I$4 ,=! REM$Y : "S
P H = ? IS Q UNAVAIL+4 ,!Y SAY1 N T
,CORISCUS IS BO? MUSICAL & UNMUSICAL1 B
T ? ,CORISCUS IS MUSICAL & ? ,CORISCUS
UNMUSICAL4 ,B ? W N D1 = 6SAY ,8?
,CORISCUS IS UNMUSICAL0'1 OR
,8MUSICAL0'1 & 6SAY ,8? ,CORISCUS0' IS
S1 IS 6USE ! SAME EXPRES.N3 & ? HE IS
BO? A6IRM+ & D5Y+ AT ONCE4 ,8,B P]H !Y D
N M1N ! SAME40' ,WELL1 NOR DID ! SIMPLE
"N 9 ! =M] CASE3 S ": IS ! DI6];E8 ,IF1
H["E1 HE IS 6ASCRIBE 6! "O P]SON !
SIMPLE TITLE ,8,CORISCUS0'1 :ILE 6! O!R
HE IS 6ADD ! PREFIX ,8"O0' OR ,8?0'1 HE
-MITS AN ABSURD;Y3 =! LATT] IS NO M
APPLICA# 6! "O ?AN 6! O!R3 = 6:I*"E HE
A4S X1 X MAKES NO DI6];E4
  ,ALL ! SAME1 S9CE IF A MAN DOES N
4T+UI% ! S5SES ( AN AMPHIBOLY1 X IS N
CLE> :E!R HE HAS BE5 3FUT$ OR HAS N BE5
3FUT$1 & S9CE 9 >GU;TS ! "R 64T+UI% !M
IS GRANT$1 X IS EVID5T T 6GRANT ! "Q
SIMPLY )\T DRAW+ ANY 4T9C;N IS A
MISTAKE1 S T1 EV5 IF N ! MAN HMF1 AT ANY
RATE 8 >GU;T LOOKS Z ?\< X _H BE5
REFUT$4 ,X (T5 HAPP5S1 H["E1 T1 ?\< !Y
SEE ! AMPHIBOLY1 P HESITATE 6DRAW S*
4T9C;NS1 2C (! D5SE CR[D ( P]SONS :O
PROPOSE "QS (! K9D1 9 ORD] T !Y MAY N 2
?"\ 6BE OB/RUC;NI/S AT E TURN3 !N1 ?\<
!Y WD N"E H SUPPOS$ T T 0 ! PO9T ON : !
>GU;T TURN$1 !Y (T5 F9D !MVS FAC$ 0A
P>ADOX4 ,ACLY1 S9CE ! "R ( DRAW+ !
4T9C;N IS GRANT$1 "O %D N HESITATE1 Z
HAS BE5 SD 2F4
  ,IF P N"E MADE TWO "QS 96"O "Q1 !
FALLACY T TURNS ^U AMBIGU;Y & AMPHIBOLY
WD N H EXI/$ EI1 B EI G5U9E REFUT,N OR
N"O4 ,= :AT IS ! DI6];E 2T ASK+ ,8,>E
,CALLIAS & ,!MI/OCLES MUSICAL80' & :AT
"O MI<T H ASK$ IF !Y1 2+ DI6]5T1 _H _H
"O "N8 ,= IF ! T]M APPLI$ M1NS M ?AN "O
?+1 HE HAS ASK$ M ?AN "O "Q4 ,IF !N X 2
N "R 6DEM& SIMPLY 6BE GIV5 A S+LE ANSW]
6TWO "QS1 X IS EVID5T T X IS N PROP]
6GIVE A SIMPLE ANSW] 6ANY AMBIGU\S "Q1 N
EV5 IF ! PR$ICATE 2 TRUE ( ALL !
SUBJECTS1 Z "S CLAIM T "O %D4 ,= ? IS
EXACTLY Z ?\< HE _H ASK$ ,8,>E ,CORISCUS
& ,CALLIAS AT HOME OR N AT HOME80'1
SUPPOS+ !M 6BE BO? 9 OR BO? \3 = 9 BO?
CASES "! IS A NUMB] ( PROPOSI;NS3 = ?\<
! SIMPLE ANSW] 2 TRUE1 T DOES N MAKE !
"Q "O4 ,= X IS POSSI# = X 6BE TRUE
6ANSW] EV5 C.T.S DI6]5T "QS :5 PUT 6"O1
ALL TGR ) EI A ,8,YES0' OR A ,8,NO0'3 B
/ "O %D N ANSW] !M )A S+LE ANSW]3 = T IS
! D1? ( 4CUS.N4 ,R1 ! CASE IS L Z ?\<
DI6]5T ?+S HAS ACTU,Y _H ! SAME "N
APPLI$ 6!M4 ,IF !N1 "O %D N GIVE A S+LE
ANSW] 6TWO "QS1 X IS EVID5T T WE %D N
SAY SIMPLY ,8,YES0' OR ,8,NO0' 9 ! CASE
( AMBIGU\S T]MS EI3 =! REM>K IS SIMPLY A
REM>K1 N AN ANSW] AT ALL1 AL? AM;G
4PUTANTS S* REM>KS >E LOOSELY DEEM$ 6BE
ANSW]S1 2C !Y D N SEE :AT ! 3SEQU;E IS4
  ,Z WE SD1 !N1 9ASM* Z C]TA9 REFUT,NS
>E G5],Y TAK5 = S*1 ?\< N S* RE,Y1 9 !
SAME WAY AL C]TA9 SOLU;NS W 2 G5],Y TAK5
= SOLU;NS1 ?\< N RE,Y S*4 ,N[ ^!1 WE
SAY1 M/ "S"TS 2 ADV.ED R ?AN ! TRUE
SOLU;NS 9 3T5TI\S R1SON+S & 9 ! 5C.T] )
AMBIGU;Y4 ,! PROP] ANSW] 9 SAY+ :AT "O
?9KS IS 6SAY ,8,GRANT$0'2 = 9 T WAY !
LIKELIHOOD ( 2+ REFUT$ ON A SIDE ISSUE
IS M9IMIZ$4 ,IF1 ON ! O!R H&1 "O IS
-PELL$ 6SAY "S?+ P>ADOXICAL1 "O %D !N 2
MO/ C>E;L 6ADD T ,8X SEEMS0' S3 = 9 T
WAY "O AVOIDS ! IMPRES.N ( 2+ EI REFUT$
OR P>ADOXICAL4 ,S9CE X IS CLE> :AT IS
M1NT BY ,8BE7+ ! ORIG9AL "Q0'1 & P ?9K T
!Y M/ AT ALL CO/S OV]?R[ ! PREMISSES T
LIE NE> ! 3CLU.N1 & PL1D 9 EXCUSE =
REFUS+ 6GRANT HM "S ( !M T HE IS BE7+ !
ORIG9AL "Q1 S :5"E ANY "O CLAIMS F U A
PO9T S* Z IS B.D 6FOLL[ Z A 3SEQU;E F \R
!SIS1 B IS FALSE OR P>ADOXICAL1 WE M/
PL1D ! SAME3 =! NEC 3SEQU;ES >E G5],Y
HELD 6BE A "P (! !SIS XF4 ,MOREOV]1 :5"E
! UNIV]SAL HAS BE5 SECUR$ N "U A DEF9ITE
"N1 B 0A -P>ISON ( 9/.ES1 "O %D SAY T !
"Q] ASSUMES X N 9 ! S5SE 9 : X 0 GRANT$
NOR 9 : HE PROPOS$ X 9 ! PREMISS3 = ?
TOO IS A PO9T ^U : A REFUT,N (T5 DEP5DS4
  ,IF "O IS DEB>R$ F ^! DEF;ES "O M/
PASS 6! >GU;T T ! 3CLU.N HAS N BE5
PROP]LY %[N1 APPROA*+ X 9 ! LI<T (!
A=ESD 4T9C;N 2T ! DI6]5T K9DS ( FALLACY4
  ,9 ! CASE1 !N1 ( "NS T >E US$ LIT],Y
"O IS B.D 6ANSW] EI SIMPLY OR 0DRAW+ A
4T9C;N3 ! TACIT "U/&+S IMPLI$ 9 \R
/ATE;TS1 E4G4 9 ANSW] 6"QS T >E N PUT
CLE>LY B ELLIPTIC,Y-X IS ^U ? T !
3SEQU5T REFUT,N DEP5DS4 ,= EXAMPLE1
,8,IS :AT 2L;GS 6,A!NIANS ! PROP]TY (
,A!NIANS80' ,YES4 ,8,& S X IS LIKEWISE 9
O!R CASES4 ,B OBS]VE2 MAN 2L;GS 6!
ANIMAL K+DOM1 DOESN'T HE80' ,YES4 ,8,!N
MAN IS ! PROP]TY (! ANIMAL K+DOM40' ,B ?
IS A FALLACY3 = WE SAY T MAN ,82L;GS
TO0' ! ANIMAL K+DOM 2C HE IS AN ANIMAL1
J Z WE SAY T ,LYS&] ,82L;GS TO0' !
,S"PANS1 2C HE IS A ,S"PAN4 ,X IS
EVID5T1 !N1 T ": ! PREMISS PUT =W>D IS N
CLE>1 "O M/ N GRANT X SIMPLY4
  ,:5"E ( TWO ?+S X IS G5],Y ?"\ T IF !
"O IS TRUE ! O!R IS TRUE ( NECESS;Y1
":AS1 IF ! O!R IS TRUE1 ! F/ IS N TRUE (
NECESS;Y1 "O %D1 IF ASK$ : ( !M IS TRUE1
GRANT ! SMALL] "O3 =! L>G] ! NUMB] (
PREMISSES1 ! H>D] X IS 6DRAW A 3CLU.N F
!M4 ,IF1 AG1 ! SOPHI/ TRIES 6SECURE T
HAS A 3TR>Y :ILE ;,B HAS N1 SUPPOSE :AT
HE SAYS IS TRUE1 Y %D SAY T EA* HAS A
3TR>Y1 ONLY =! "O "! IS NO E/ABLI%$ "N4
  ,S9CE1 AG1 9 REG>D 6"S (! VIEWS !Y
EXPRESS1 MO/ P WD SAY T ANY "O :O DID N
ADMIT !M 0 TELL+ A FALSEHOOD1 :ILE !Y WD
N SAY ? 9 REG>D 6"S1 E4G4 6ANY MATT]S
":ON OP9ION IS DIVID$ 7= MO/ P H NO
4T9CT VIEW :E!R ! S\L ( ANIMALS IS
DE/RUCTI# OR IMMORTAL71 ACLY 7#A7 X IS
UNC]TA9 9 : ( TWO S5SES ! PREMISS
PROPOS$ IS USU,Y M1NT-:E!R Z MAXIMS >E
7= P CALL 0! "N ( ,8MAXIMS0' BO? TRUE
OP9IONS & G5]AL ASS];NS7 OR L ! DOCTR9E
,8! DIAGONAL (A SQU>E IS 9COMM5SURATE )
XS SIDE0'3 & MOREOV] 7#B7 :5"E OP9IONS
>E DIVID$ Z 6! TRU?1 WE !N H SUBJECTS (
: X IS V EASY 6*ANGE ! T]M9OLOGY
UNDETECT$4 ,= 2C (! UNC]TA9TY 9 : (! TWO
S5SES ! PREMISS 3TA9S ! TRU?1 "O W N 2
?"\ 6BE PLAY+ ANY TRICK1 :ILE 2C (!
DIVI.N ( OP9ION1 "O W N 2 ?"\ 6BE TELL+
A FALSEHOOD4 ,*ANGE ! T]M9OLOGY "!=E1 =!
*ANGE W MAKE ! POSI;N IRREFUTA#4
  ,MOREOV]1 :5"E "O =ESEES ANY "Q -+1 "O
%D PUT 9 "O'S OBJEC;N & H "O'S SAY 2FH&3
= 0DO+ S "O IS LIKELY 6EMB>RASS ! "Q]
MO/ E6ECTU,Y4

                  #AH

  ,9ASM* Z A PROP] SOLU;N IS AN EXPOSURE
( FALSE R1SON+1 %[+ ON :AT K9D ( "Q !
FALS;Y DEP5DS1 & ":AS ,8FALSE R1SON+0'
HAS A D\# M1N+-= X IS US$ EI IF A FALSE
3CLU.N HAS BE5 PROV$1 OR IF "! IS ONLY
AN APP>5T PRO( & NO R1L "O-"! M/ 2 BO? !
K9D ( SOLU;N J DESCRIB$10' & AL !
CORREC;N (A M]ELY APP>5T PRO(1 S Z 6%[
^U : (! "QS ! APPE>.E DEP5DS4 ,?US X -ES
AB T "O SOLVES >GU;TS T >E PROP]LY
R1SON$ 0DEMOLI%+ !M1 ":AS "O SOLVES
M]ELY APP>5T >GU;TS 0DRAW+ 4T9C;NS4 ,AG1
9ASM* Z ( >GU;TS T >E PROP]LY R1SON$ "S
H A TRUE & O!RS A FALSE 3CLU.N1 ^? T >E
FALSE 9 RESPECT ( _! 3CLU.N X IS POSSI#
6SOLVE 9 TWO WAYS2 = X IS POSSI# BO?
0DEMOLI%+ "O (! PREMISSES ASK$1 & 0%[+ T
! 3CLU.N IS N ! R1L /ATE (! CASE3 ^?1 ON
! O!R H&1 T >E FALSE 9 RESPECT (!
PREMISSES C 2 SOLV$ ONLY 0A DEMOLI;N (
"O ( !M2 =! 3CLU.N IS TRUE4 ,S T ^? :O
WI% 6SOLVE AN >GU;T %D 9 ! F/ PLACE LOOK
& SEE IF X IS PROP]LY R1SON$1 OR IS
UNR1SON$2 & NEXT1 :E!R ! 3CLU.N 2 TRUE
OR FALSE1 9 ORD] T WE MAY E6ECT ! SOLU;N
EI 0DRAW+ "S 4T9C;N OR 0DEMOLI%+ "S?+1 &
DEMOLI%+ X EI 9 ? WAY OR 9 T1 Z 0 LAID
D[N 2F4 ,"! IS A V GRT D1L ( DI6];E 2T
SOLV+ AN >GU;T :5 2+ SUBJECT$ 6"QS & :5
N3 = 6=ESEE TRAPS IS DI6ICULT1 ":AS 6SEE
!M AT "O'S LEISURE IS EASI]4

                  #AI

  ,(! REFUT,NS1 !N1 T DEP5D ^U AMBIGU;Y
& AMPHIBOLY "S 3TA9 "S "Q ) M ?AN "O
M1N+1 :ILE O!RS 3TA9 A 3CLU.N BE>+ A
NUMB] ( S5SES3 E4G4 9 ! PRO( T ,8SP1K+ (
! SIL5T0' IS POSSI#1 ! 3CLU.N HAS A D\#
M1N+1 :ILE 9 ! PRO( T ,8HE :O "KS DOES N
"U/& :AT HE "KS0' "O (! "QS 3TA9S AN
AMPHIBOLY4 ,AL ! D\#-$G$ SAY+ IS TRUE 9
"O 3TEXT B N 9 ANO!R3 X M1NS "S?+ T IS &
"S?+ T IS N4
  ,:5"E1 !N1 ! _M S5SES LIE 9 ! 3CLU.N
NO REFUT,N TAKES PLACE UN.S ! SOPHI/
SECURES Z WELL ! 3TRADIC;N (! 3CLU.N HE
M1NS 6PROVE2 E4G4 9 ! PRO( T ,8SEE+ (!
BL0' IS POSSI#3 = )\T ! 3TRADIC;N "! 0
NO REFUT,N4 ,:5"E1 ON ! O!R H&1 ! _M
S5SES LIE 9 ! "QS1 "! IS NO NECESS;Y
62G9 0D5Y+ ! D\#-$G$ PREMISS3 = ? 0 N !
GOAL (! >GU;T B ONLY XS SUPPORT4 ,AT !
/>T1 !N1 "O %D REPLY ) REG>D 6AN
AMBIGU;Y1 :E!R (A T]M OR (A PHRASE1 9 ?
MANN]1 T ,8IN "O S5SE X IS S1 & 9 ANO!R
N S0'1 Z E4G4 T ,8SP1K+ (! SIL5T0' IS 9
"O S5SE POSSI# B 9 ANO!R N POSSI#3 AL T
9 "O S5SE ,8"O %D D :AT M/ NE$S 2 D"O0'1
B N 9 ANO!R3 = ,8:AT M/ NE$S BE0' BE>S A
NUMB] ( S5SES4 ,IF1 H["E1 ! AMBIGU;Y
ESCAPES "O1 "O %D CORRECT X AT ! 5D
0MAK+ AN A4I;N 6! "Q3 ,8,IS SP1K+ (!
SIL5T POSSI#80' ,8,NO1 B 6SP1K ( :ILE HE
IS SIL5T IS POSSI#40' ,AL1 9 CASES :
3TA9 ! AMBIGU;Y 9 _! PREMISSES1 "O %D
REPLY 9 L MANN]3 ,8,D P-!N N "U/& :AT !Y
"K8 8,YES1 B N ^? :O "K X 9 ! MANN]
DESCRIB$0'3 = X IS N ! SAME ?+ 6SAY T
,8^? :O "K _C "U/& :AT !Y "K0'1 & 6SAY T
,8^? :O "K "S?+ 9 ? "PICUL> MANN] _C D
S0'4 ,9 G5]AL1 TOO1 EV5 ?\< HE DRAWS 8
3CLU.N 9 A Q UNAMBIGU\S MANN]1 "O %D
3T5D T :AT HE HAS NEGAT$ IS N ! FACT :
"O HAS ASS]T$ B ONLY XS "N2 & T "!=E "!
IS NO REFUT,N4

                  #BJ

  ,X IS EVID5T AL H[ "O %D SOLVE ^?
REFUT,NS T DEP5D ^U ! DIVI.N & -B9,N (
^WS3 = IF ! EXPRES.N M1NS "S?+ DI6]5T :5
DIVID$ & :5 -B9$1 Z SOON Z "O'S OPPON5T
DRAWS 8 3CLU.N "O %D TAKE ! EXPRES.N 9 !
3TR>Y WAY4 ,ALL S* EXPRES.NS Z ! FOLL[+
DEP5D ^U ! -B9,N OR DIVI.N (! ^WS3
,8,WAS ;,X 2+ B1T5 ) T ) : Y SAW HM 2+
B1T580' & ,8,DID Y SEE HM 2+ B1T5 ) T )
: HE 0 2+ B1T580' ,? FALLACY HAS AL 9 X
AN ELE;T ( AMPHIBOLY 9 ! "QS1 B X RE,Y
DEP5DS ^U -B9,N4 ,=! M1N+ T DEP5DS ^U !
DIVI.N (! ^WS IS N RE,Y A D\# M1N+ 7=!
EXPRES.N :5 DIVID$ IS N ! SAME71 UN.S AL
! ^W T IS PRON\NC$1 AC 6XS BR1?+1 Z ]OS
& ]OS IS A CASE ( D\# M1N+4 7,IN WRIT+1
9DE$1 A ^W IS ! SAME :5"E X IS WRITT5 (!
SAME LRS & 9 ! SAME MANN]- & EV5 "! P
N[A"DS PUT M>KS AT ! SIDE 6%[ !
PRONUNCI,N- B ! SPOK5 ^WS >E N ! SAME47
,ACLY AN EXPRES.N T DEP5DS ^U DIVI.N IS
N AN AMBIGU\S "O4 ,X IS EVID5T AL T N
ALL REFUT,NS DEP5D ^U AMBIGU;Y Z "S P
SAY !Y D4
  ,! ANSW]]1 !N1 M/ DIVIDE ! EXPRES.N3 =
,8,I-SAW-A-MAN-2+-B1T5 ) MY EYES0' IS N
! SAME Z 6SAY ,8,I SAW A MAN 2+-B1T5-)-
MY-EYES0'4 ,AL "! IS ! >GU;T (
,EU?YDEMUS PROV+ ,8,!N Y "K N[ 9 ,SICILY
T "! >E TRIREMES 9 ,PIRAEUS0'3 & AG1
,8,C A GD MAN :O IS A COB#R 2 BAD80'
,8,NO40' ,8,B A GD MAN MAY 2 A BAD
COB#R3 "!=E A GD COB#R W 2 BAD40' ,AG1
,8,?+S ! K ( : IS GD1 >E GD ?+S 6LE>N1
>5'T !Y80' ,8,YES40' ,8,! K1 H["E1 (
EVIL IS GD3 "!=E EVIL IS A GD ?+ 6"K40'
,8,YES4 ,B1 Y SEE1 EVIL IS BO? EVIL &A
?+-TO-LE>N1 S T EVIL IS AN EVIL-?+-TO-
LE>N1 AL? ! K ( EVILS IS GD40' ,AG1
,8,IS X TRUE 6SAY 9 ! PRES5T MO;T T Y >E
BORN80' ,8,YES40' ,8,!N Y >E BORN 9 !
PRES5T MO;T40' ,8,NO2 ! EXPRES.N Z
DIVID$ HAS A DI6]5T M1N+3 = X IS TRUE
6SAY-IN-!-PRES5T-MO;T T 8Y >E BORN01 B N
8,Y >E BORN-IN-!-PRES5T-MO;T040' ,AG1
,8,CD Y D :AT Y C1 & Z Y C80' ,8,YES40'
,8,B :5 N H>P+1 Y H ! P[] 6H>P3 & "!=E Y
CD H>P :5 N H>P+40' ,8,NO3 HE HAS N !
P[] 6H>P-:ILE-N-H>P+2 M]ELY1 :5 HE IS N
DO+ X1 HE HAS ! P[] 6D X40' ,"S P SOLVE
? LA/ REFUT,N 9 ANO!R WAY Z WELL4 ,=1 !Y
SAY1 IF HE HAS GRANT$ T HE C D ANY?+ 9 !
WAY HE C1 / X DOES N FOLL[ T HE C H>P :5
N H>P+3 = X HAS N BE5 GRANT$ T HE W D
ANY?+ 9 E WAY 9 : HE C2 & X IS N ! SAME
?+0' 6D A ?+ 9 ! WAY HE C0' & ,86D X 9 E
WAY 9 : HE C0'4 ,B EVID5TLY !Y D N SOLVE
X PROP]LY3 =( >GU;TS T DEP5D ^U ! SAME
PO9T ! SOLU;N IS ! SAME1 ":AS ? W N FIT
ALL CASES (! K9D NOR YET ALL WAYS (
PUTT+ ! "QS3 X IS VALID AG/ ! "Q]1 B N
AG/ 8 >GU;T4


                  #BA

  ,A35TU,N GIVES RISE 6NO FALLACI\S
>GU;TS1 EI Z WRITT5 OR Z SPOK51 EXCEPT
P]H "S FEW T MI<T 2 MADE UP2 E4G4 !
FOLL[+ >GU;T4 ,8,IS OU KATALUEIS A
H\SE80' ,8,YES40' ,8,IS !N OU KATALUEIS
! NEG,N ( KATALUEIS80' ,8,YES40' ,8,B Y
SD T OU KATALUEIS IS A H\SE3 "!=E ! H\SE
IS A NEG,N40' ,H[ "O %D SOLVE ?1 IS
CLE>3 =! ^W DOES N M1N ! SAME :5 SPOK5 )
AN ACUT] & :5 SPOK5 )A GRAV] A35T4

                  #BB

  ,X IS CLE> AL H[ "O M/ MEET ^?
FALLACIES T DEP5D ON ! ID5TICAL
EXPRES.NS ( ?+S T >E N ID5TICAL1 SEE+ T
WE >E 9 POSSES.N (! K9DS ( PR$IC,NS4 ,=!
"O MAN1 SAY1 HAS GRANT$1 :5 ASK$1 T A
T]M DENOT+ A SUB/.E DOES N 2L;G Z AN
ATTRIBUTE1 :ILE ! O!R HAS %[N T "S
ATTRIBUTE 2L;GS : IS 9 ! ,CATEGORY (
,REL,N OR ( ,QUANT;Y1 B IS USU,Y ?"\
6DENOTE A SUB/.E 2C ( XS EXPRES.N2 E4G4
9 ! FOLL[+ >GU;T3 ,8,IS X POSSI# 6BE DO+
& 6H D"O ! SAME ?+ AT ! SAME "T80'
,8,NO40' ,8,B1 Y SEE1 X IS SURELY POSSI#
6BE SEE+ & 6H SE5 ! SAME ?+ AT ! SAME
"T1 & 9 ! SAME ASPECT40' ,AG1 ,8,IS ANY
MODE ( PASSIV;Y A MODE ( ACTIV;Y80'
,8,NO40' ,8,!N 8HE IS CUT01 8HE IS
BURNT01 8HE IS /RUCK 0"S S5SI# OBJECT0
>E ALIKE 9 EXPRES.N & ALL DENOTE "S =M (
PASSIV;Y1 :ILE AG 86SAY01 86RUN01 86SEE0
>E L "O L "O ANO!R 9 EXPRES.N3 B1 Y SEE1
86SEE0 IS SURELY A =M ( 2+ /RUCK 0A
S5SI# OBJECT2 "!=E X IS AT ! SAME "T A
=M ( PASSIV;Y &( ACTIV;Y40' ,SUPPOSE1
H["E1 T 9 T CASE ANY "O1 AF GRANT+ T X
IS N POSSI# 6D & 6H D"O ! SAME ?+ 9 !
SAME "T1 7 6SAY T X IS POSSI# 6SEE & 6H
SE5 X1 / HE HAS N YET BE5 REFUT$1
SUPPOSE HM 6SAY T ,86SEE0' IS N A =M (
,8DO+0' 7ACTIV;Y7 B ( ,8PASSIV;Y0'3 = ?
"Q IS REQUIR$ Z WELL1 ?\< HE IS SUPPOS$
0! LI/5] 6H ALR GRANT$ X1 :5 HE GRANT$ T
,86CUT0' IS A =M ( PRES5T1 & ,86H CUT0'
A =M ( PA/1 ACTIV;Y1 & S ON )! O!R ?+S T
H A L EXPRES.N4 ,=! LI/5] A4S ! RE/
0HMF1 ?9K+ ! M1N+ 6BE ALIKE3 ":AS RE,Y !
M1N+ IS N ALIKE1 ?\< X APPE>S 6BE S 2C (
! EXPRES.N4 ,! SAME ?+ HAPP5S "H Z
HAPP5S 9 CASES ( AMBIGU;Y3 = 9 D1L+ )
AMBIGU\S EXPRES.NS ! TYRO 9 >GU;T
SUPPOSES ! SOPHI/ 6H NEGAT$ ! FACT : HE
7! TYRO7 A6IRM$1 & N M]ELY ! "N3 ":AS "!
/ WANTS ! "Q :E!R 9 US+ ! AMBIGU\S T]M
HE _H A S+LE M1N+ 9 VIEW3 = IF HE GRANTS
T T 0 S1 ! REFUT,N W 2 E6ECT$4
  ,L ! ABV >E AL ! FOLL[+ >GU;TS4 ,X IS
ASK$ IF A MAN HAS LO/ :AT HE ONCE _H &
AFWS HAS N3 =A MAN W NO L;G] H T5 DICE
EV5 ?\< HE HAS ONLY LO/ "O DIE4 ,NO3 R X
IS T HE HAS LO/ :AT HE _H 2F & HAS N N[2
B "! IS NO NECESS;Y = HM 6H LO/ Z M* OR
Z _M ?+S Z HE HAS N N[4 ,S !N1 HE ASKS !
"QS Z 6:AT HE HAS1 & DRAWS ! 3CLU.N Z 6!
:OLE NUMB] T HE HAS3 = T5 IS A NUMB]4
,IF !N HE _H ASK$ 62G9 )1 :E!R A MAN NO
L;G] HAV+ ! NUMB] ( ?+S HE ONCE _H HAS
LO/ ! :OLE NUMB]1 NO "O WD H GRANT$ X1 B
WD H SD ,8,EI ! :OLE NUMB] OR "O ( !M0'4
,AL "! IS ! >GU;T T 'A MAN MAY GIVE :AT
HE HAS N GOT0'3 = HE HAS N GOT ONLY "O
DIE4 ,NO3 R X IS T HE HAS GIV5 N :AT HE
_H N GOT1 B 9 A MANN] 9 : HE _H N GOT X1
VIZ4 J ! "O4 ,=! ^W ,8ONLY0' DOES N
SIGNIFY A "PICUL> SUB/.E OR QUAL;Y OR
NUMB]1 B A MANN] REL,N1 E4G4 T X IS N
C\PL$ ) ANY O!R4 ,X IS "!=E J Z IF HE _H
ASK$ ,8,CD A MAN GIVE :AT HE HAS N
GOT80' &1 ON 2+ GIV5 ! ANSW] ,8,NO0'1 7
6ASK IF A MAN CD GIVE A ?+ QKLY :5 HE _H
N GOT X QKLY1 &1 ON ? 2+ GRANT$1 7
63CLUDE T 'A MAN CD GIVE :AT HE _H N
GOT0'4 ,X IS Q EVID5T T HE HAS N PROV$ 8
PO9T3 = TO ,8GIVE QKLY0' IS N 6GIVE A
?+1 B 6GIVE 9 A C]TA9 MANN]2 &A MAN CD
C]TA9LY GIVE A ?+ 9 A MANN] 9 : HE HAS N
GOT X1 E4G4 HE MI<T H GOT X ) PL1SURE &
GIVE X ) PA94
  ,L ^! >E AL ALL >GU;TS (! FOLL[+ K9D3
,8,CD A MAN /RIKE A BL[ )A H& : HE HAS N
GOT1 OR SEE ) AN EYE : HE HAS N GOT80'
,= HE HAS N GOT ONLY "O EYE4 ,"S P SOLVE
? CASE1 ": A MAN HAS M ?AN "O EYE1 OR M
?AN "O ( ANY?+ ELSE1 0SAY+ AL T HE HAS
ONLY "O4 ,O!RS AL SOLVE X Z !Y SOLVE !
REFUT,N (! VIEW T ,8:AT A MAN HAS1 HE
HAS RCVD0'3 = ,A GAVE ONLY "O VOTE2 &
C]TA9LY ;,B1 !Y SAY1 HAS ONLY "O VOTE F
,A4 ,O!RS1 AG1 PROCE$ 0DEMOLI%+ /RAI<T
AWAY ! PROPOSI;N ASK$1 & ADMITT+ T X IS
Q POSSI# 6H :AT "O HAS N RCVD2 E4G4 6H
RCVD SWEET W9E1 B !N1 [+ 6XS GO+ BAD 9 !
C\RSE ( RECEIPT1 6H X S\R4 ,B1 Z 0 SD AL
ABV10' ALL ^! P]SONS DIRECT _! SOLU;NS
AG/ ! MAN1 N AG/ 8 >GU;T4 ,= IF ? 7 A
G5U9E SOLU;N1 !N1 SUPPOSE ANY "O 6GRANT
! OPPOSITE1 HE CD F9D NO SOLU;N1 J Z
HAPP5S 9 O!R CASES2 E4G4 SUPPOSE ! TRUE
SOLU;N 6BE ,8,S-&-S IS "PLY TRUE & "PLY
N0'1 !N1 IF ! ANSW]] GRANTS ! EXPRES.N
)\T ANY QUALIFIC,N1 ! SOPHI/'S 3CLU.N
FOLL[S4 ,IF1 ON ! O!R H&1 ! 3CLU.N DOES
N FOLL[1 !N T CD N 2 ! TRUE SOLU;N3 &
:AT WE SAY 9 REG>D 6! =EGO+ EXAMPLES IS
T1 EV5 IF ALL ! SOPHI/'S PREMISSES 2
GRANT$1 / NO PRO( IS E6ECT$4
  ,MOREOV]1 ! FOLL[+ TOO 2L;G 6? GR\P (
>GU;TS4 ,8,IF "S?+ 2 9 WRIT+ DID "S "O
WRITE X80' ,8,YES40' ,8,B X IS N[ 9
WRIT+ T Y >E S1T$-A FALSE /ATE;T1 ?\< X
0 TRUE AT ! "T :5 X 0 WRITT53 "!=E !
/ATE;T T 0 WRITT5 IS AT ! SAME "T FALSE
& TRUE40' ,B ? IS FALLACI\S1 =! FALS;Y
OR TRU? (A /ATE;T OR OP9ION 9DICATES N A
SUB/.E B A QUAL;Y3 =! SAME A3.T APPLIES
6! CASE ( AN OP9ION Z WELL4 ,AG1 ,8,IS
:AT A LE>N] LE>NS :AT HE LE>NS80'
,8,YES40' ,8,B SUPPOSE "S "O LE>NS 8SL[0
QK0'4 ,!N 8 7! SOPHI/'S7 ^WS DENOTE N
:AT ! LE>N] LE>NS B H[ HE LE>NS X4 ,AL1
,8,DOES A MAN TR1D ^U :AT HE WALKS "?8
,8,YES40' ,8,B ;,X WALKS "? A :OLE "D40'
,NO1 R ! ^WS DENOTE N :AT HE WALKS "?1 B
:5 HE WALKS2 J Z :5 ANY "O USES ! ^WS
,86DR9K ! CUP0' HE DENOTES N :AT HE
DR9KS1 B ! VESSEL \ ( : HE DR9KS4 ,AL1
,8,IS X EI 0LE>N+ OR 04COV]Y T A MAN "KS
:AT HE "KS80' ,8,YES40' ,8,B SUPPOSE T (
A PAIR ( ?+S HE HAS 4COV]$ "O & LE>N$ !
O!R1 ! PAIR IS N "KN 6HM 0EI ME?OD40'
,NO3 ,8:AT0' HE "KS1 M1NS' E S+LE ?+0'
HE "KS1 9DIVIDU,Y2 B ? DOES N M1N ,8ALL
! ?+S0' HE "KS1 COLLECTIVELY4 ,AG1 "! IS
! PRO( T "! IS A ,8?IRD MAN0' 4T9CT F
,MAN & F 9DIVIDUAL M54 ,B T IS A
FALLACY1 = ,8,MAN0'1 & 9DE$ E G5]AL
PR$ICATE1 DENOTES N AN 9DIVIDUAL SUB/.E1
B A "PICUL> QUAL;Y1 OR ! 2+ RELAT$ 6"S?+
9 A "PICUL> MANN]1 OR "S?+ ( T SORT4
,LIKEWISE AL 9 ! CASE ( ,8,CORISCUS0' &
,8,CORISCUS ! MUSICIAN0' "! IS ! PRO#M1
,>E !Y ! SAME OR DI6]5T80' ,=! "O
DENOTES AN 9DIVIDUAL SUB/.E &! O!R A
QUAL;Y1 S T X _C 2 ISOLAT$2 ?\< X IS N !
ISOL,N : CR1TES ! ,8?IRD MAN0'1 B !
ADMIS.N T X IS AN 9DIVIDUAL SUB/.E4 ,=
,8,MAN0' _C 2 AN 9DIVIDUAL SUB/.E1 Z
,CALLIAS IS4 ,NOR IS ! CASE IMPROV$ "O
:IT EV5 IF "O 7 6CALL ! CLE;T HE HAS
ISOLAT$ N AN 9DIVIDUAL SUB/.E B A
QUAL;Y3 = "! W / 2 ! "O 2S ! _M1 J Z
,8,MAN0' WAS4 ,X IS EVID5T !N T "O M/ N
GRANT T :AT IS A -MON PR$ICATE APPLY+ 6A
CLASS UNIV]S,Y IS AN 9DIVIDUAL SUB/.E1 B
M/ SAY T DENOTES EI A QUAL;Y1 OR A
REL,N1 OR A QUANT;Y1 OR "S?+ ( T K9D4

                  #BC

  ,X IS A G5]AL RULE 9 D1L+ ) >GU;TS T
DEP5D ON LANGUAGE T ! SOLU;N ALW FOLL[S
! OPPOSITE (! PO9T ON : ! >GU;T TURNS3
E4G4 IF ! >GU;T DEP5DS ^U -B9,N1 !N !
SOLU;N 3SI/S 9 DIVI.N2 IF ^U DIVI.N1 !N
9 -B9,N4 ,AG1 IF X DEP5DS ON AN ACUTE
A35T1 ! SOLU;N IS A GRAVE A35T2 IF ON A
GRAVE A35T1 X IS AN ACUTE4 ,IF X DEP5DS
ON AMBIGU;Y1 "O C SOLVE X 0US+ !
OPPOSITE T]M2 E4G4 IF Y F9D YRF CALL+
"S?+ 9ANIMATE1 DESPITE YR PREVI\S D5IAL
T X 0 S1 %[ 9 :AT S5SE X IS ALIVE3 IF1
ON ! O!R H&1 "O HAS DCLD X 6BE 9ANIMATE
&! SOPHI/ HAS PROV$ X 6BE ANIMATE1 SAY
H[ X IS 9ANIMATE4 ,LIKEWISE AL 9 A CASE
( AMPHIBOLY4 ,IF ! >GU;T DEP5DS ON
LIKE;S ( EXPRES.N1 ! OPPOSITE W 2 !
SOLU;N4 ,8,CD A MAN GIVE :AT HE HAS N
GOT8 ,8,NO1 N :AT HE HAS N GOT2 B HE CD
GIVE X 9 A WAY 9 : HE HAS N GOT X1 E4G4
"O DIE 0XF40' ,DOES A MAN "K EI 0LE>N+
OR 04COV]Y EA* ?+ T HE "KS1 S+LY8 B N !
?+S T HE "KS1 COLLECTIVELY40' ,AL A MAN
TR1DS1 P]H1 ON ANY ?+ HE WALKS "?1 B N
ON ! "T HE WALKS "?4 ,LIKEWISE AL 9 !
CASE (! O!R EXAMPLES4

                  #BD

  ,9 D1L+ ) >GU;TS T DEP5D ON ,A3ID5T1
"O &! SAME SOLU;N MEETS ALL CASES4 ,=
S9CE X IS 9DET]M9ATE :5 AN ATTRIBUTE %D
2 ASCRIB$ 6A ?+1 9 CASES ": X 2L;GS 6!
A3ID5T (! ?+1 & S9CE 9 "S CASES X IS
G5],Y AGRE$ & P ADMIT T X 2L;GS1 :ILE 9
O!RS !Y D5Y T X NE$ 2L;G1 WE %D "!=E1 Z
SOON Z ! 3CLU.N HAS BE5 DRAWN1 SAY 9
ANSW] 6!M ALL ALIKE1 T "! IS NO NE$ = S*
AN ATTRIBUTE 62L;G4 ,"O M/1 H["E1 2
PREP>$ 6A4UCE AN EXAMPLE (! K9D (
ATTRIBUTE M1NT4 ,ALL >GU;TS S* Z !
FOLL[+ DEP5D ^U ,A3ID5T4 ,8,D Y "K :AT
,I AM GO+ 6ASK Y8 Y "K ! MAN :O IS
APPROA*+0'1 OR ,8! MAN 9 ! MASK0'8 ,8,IS
! /ATUE YR "W ( >T80' OR ,8,IS ! DOG YR
"F80' ,8,IS ! PRODUCT (A SMALL NUMB] )A
SMALL NUMB] A SMALL NUMB]80' ,= X IS
EVID5T 9 ALL ^! CASES T "! IS NO
NECESS;Y =! ATTRIBUTE : IS TRUE (! ?+'S
A3ID5T 6BE TRUE (! ?+ Z WELL4 ,= ONLY
6?+S T >E 9DIST+UI%A# & "O 9 ESS;E IS X
G5],Y AGRE$ T ALL ! SAME ATTRIBUTES
2L;G2 ":AS 9 ! CASE (A GD ?+1 6BE GD IS
N ! SAME Z 6BE GO+ 6BE ! SUBJECT (A "Q2
NOR 9 ! CASE (A MAN APPROA*+1 OR WE>+ A
MASK1 IS ,86BE APPROA*+0' ! SAME ?+ Z
,86BE ,CORISCUS0'1 S T SUPPOSE ,I "K
,CORISCUS1 B D N "K ! MAN :O IS
APPROA*+1 X / ISN'T ! CASE T ,I BO? "K &
D N "K ! SAME MAN2 NOR1 AG1 IF ? IS M9E
& IS AL A "W ( >T1 IS X "!=E MY "W ( >T1
B MY PROP]TY OR ?+ OR "S?+ ELSE4 7,!
SOLU;N IS AF ! SAME MANN] 9 ! O!R CASES
Z WELL47
  ,"S SOLVE ^! REFUT,NS 0DEMOLI%+ !
ORIG9AL PROPOSI;N ASK$3 = !Y SAY T X IS
POSSI# 6"K & N 6"K ! SAME ?+1 ONLY N 9 !
SAME RESPECT3 ACLY1 :5 !Y DON'T "K ! MAN
:O IS -+ T[>DS !M1 B D "K ,CORSICUS1 !Y
ASS]T T !Y D "K & DON'T "K ! SAME
OBJECT1 B N 9 ! SAME RESPECT4 ,YET1 Z WE
H ALR REM>K$1 ! CORREC;N ( >GU;TS T
DEP5D ^U ! SAME PO9T "\ 6BE ! SAME1 ":AS
? "O W N /& IF "O ADOPTS ! SAME PR9CIPLE
9 REG>D N 6"K+ "S?+1 B 62+1 OR 62+ IS A
9 A C]TA9 /ATE1 E4G4 SUPPOSE T ;,X IS
"F1 & IS AL YRS3 = IF 9 "S CASES ? IS
TRUE & X IS POSSI# 6"K & N 6"K ! SAME
?+1 YET ) T CASE ! SOLU;N /AT$ HAS NO?+
6D4 ,C]TA9LY "! IS NO?+ 6PREV5T ! SAME
>GU;T F HAV+ A NUMB] ( FLAWS2 B X IS N !
EXPOSI;N ( ANY & E FAULT T 3/ITUTES A
SOLU;N3 = X IS POSSI# =A MAN 6%[ T A
FALSE 3CLU.N HAS BE5 PROV$1 B N 6%[ ON
:AT X DEP5DS1 E4G4 9 ! CASE ( ,Z5O'S
>GU;T 6PROVE T MO;N IS IMPOSSI#4 ,S T
EV5 IF ANY "O 7 6TRY 6E/ABLI% T ?
DOCTR9E IS AN IMPOSSI# "O1 HE / IS
MISTAK51 & EV5 IF HE PROV$ 8 CASE T5
?\S& "TS OV]1 / ? IS NO SOLU;N ( ,Z5O'S
>GU;T3 =! SOLU;N 0 ALL AL;G AN EXPOSI;N
( FALSE R1SON+1 %[+ ON :AT XS FALS;Y
DEP5DS4 ,IF !N HE HAS N PROV$ 8 CASE1 OR
IS TRY+ 6E/ABLI% EV5 A TRUE PROPOSI;N1
OR A FALSE "O1 9 A FALSE MANN]1 6PO9T ?
\ IS A TRUE SOLU;N4 ,POSSIBLY1 9DE$1 !
PRES5T SU7ES;N MAY V WELL APPLY 9 "S
CASES3 B 9 ^! CASES1 AT ANY RATE1 N EV5
? WD 2 G5],Y AGRE$3 = HE "KS BO? T
,CORISCUS IS ,CORISCUS & T ! APPROA*+
FIGURE IS APPROA*+4 ,6"K & N 6"K ! SAME
?+ IS G5],Y ?"\ 6BE POSSI#1 :5 E4G4 "O
"KS T ;,X IS :ITE1 B DOES N R1LIZE T HE
IS MUSICAL3 = 9 T WAY HE DOES "K & N "K
! SAME ?+1 ?\< N 9 ! SAME RESPECT4 ,B Z
6! APPROA*+ FIGURE & ,CORISCUS HE "KS
BO? T X IS APPROA*+ & T HE IS ,CORISCUS4
  ,A L MISTAKE 6T ( ^? :OM WE H M5;N$ IS
T ( ^? :O SOLVE ! PRO( T E NUMB] IS A
SMALL NUMB]3 = IF1 :5 ! 3CLU.N IS N
PROV$1 !Y PASS ? OV] & SAY T A 3CLU.N
HAS BE5 PROV$ & IS TRUE1 ON ! GR.D T E
NUMB] IS BO? GRT & SMALL1 !Y MAKE A
MISTAKE4
  ,"S P AL USE ! PR9CIPLE ( AMBIGU;Y
6SOLVE ! A=ESD R1SON+S1 E4G4 ! PRO( T
',X IS YR "F0'1 OR ,8SON0'1 OR
,8SLAVE0'4 ,YET X IS EVID5T T IF !
APPE>.E A PRO( DEP5DS ^U A PLURAL;Y (
M1N+S1 ! T]M1 OR ! EXPRES.N 9 "Q1 "\
6BE> A NUMB] ( LIT]AL S5SES1 ":AS NO "O
SP1KS ( ,A Z 2+ ,8;,B'S *0' 9 ! LIT]AL
S5SE1 IF ;,B IS ! *'S MA/]1 B ! -B9,N
DEP5DS ^U ,A3ID5T4 ,8,IS ,A YRS80'
,8,YES40' ,8,& IS ,A A *80' ,8,YES40'
,8,!N ! * ,A IS YRS10' 2C HE HAPP5S 6BE
BO? YRS &A *2 B HE IS N ,8YR *0'4
  ,"! IS AL ! PRO( T ,8"S?+ 8( EVILS0 IS
GD0'2 = WISDOM IS A ,8K 8( EVILS00'4 ,B
! EXPRES.N T ? IS ,8( S &-S0' 7.K ,8S-&-
S'S0'7 HAS N A NUMB] ( M1N+S3 X M1NS T X
IS ,8S-&-S'S PROP]TY0'4 ,WE MAY SUPPOSE
( C\RSE1 ON ! O!R H&1 T X HAS A NUMB] (
M1N+S-= WE AL SAY T MAN IS ,8(!
ANIMALS0'1 ?\< N _! PROP]TY2 & AL T ANY
T]M RELAT$ TO ,8EVILS0' 9 A WAY EXPRESS$
0A G5ITIVE CASE IS ON T A3.T A S-&-S ,8(
EVILS0'1 ?\< X IS N "O (! EVILS-B 9 T
CASE ! APP>5TLY DI6]5T M1N+S SEEM 6DEP5D
ON :E!R ! T]M IS US$ RELATIVELY OR
ABSOLUTELY4 ,8,YET X IS 3CEIVABLY POSSI#
6F9D A R1L AMBIGU;Y 9 ! PHRASE 8,"S?+ (
EVILS IS GD040' ,P]H1 B N ) REG>D 6!
PHRASE 9 "Q4 ,X WD O3UR M NE>LY1 SUPPOSE
T ',A S]VANT IS GD (! WICK$0'2 ?\< P]H X
IS N Q F.D EV5 "!3 =A ?+ MAY 2 ,8GD0' &
2 ,8;,X'S0' )\T 2+ AT ! SAME "T ,8;,X'S
GD0'4 ,NOR IS ! SAY+ T ,8,MAN IS (!
ANIMALS0' A PHRASE )A NUMB] ( M1N+S3 =A
PHRASE DOES N 2COME POSSESS$ (A NUMB] (
M1N+S M]ELY SUPPOSE WE EXPRESS X
ELLIPTIC,Y3 = WE EXPRESS ,8,GIVE ME !
,ILIAD0' 0QUOT+ HALF A L9E ( X1 E4G4
,8,GIVE ME 8,S+1 GO4ESS1 (! WRA? '''00'

                  #BE

  ,^? >GU;TS : DEP5D ^U AN EXPRES.N T IS
VALID (A "PICUL> ?+1 OR 9 A "PICUL>
RESPECT1 OR PLACE1 OR MANN]1 OR REL,N1 &
N VALID ABSOLUTELY1 %D 2 SOLV$ 03SID]+ !
3CLU.N 9 REL,N 6XS 3TRADICTORY1 6SEE IF
ANY ( ^! ?+S C POSSIBLY H HAPP5$ 6X4 ,=
X IS IMPOSSI# = 3TR>IES & OPPOSITES & AN
A6IRMATIVE &A NEGATIVE 62L;G 6! SAME ?+
ABSOLUTELY2 "! IS1 H["E1 NO?+ 6PREV5T
EA* F 2L;G+ 9 A "PICUL> RESPECT OR REL,N
OR MANN]1 OR 6PREV5T "O ( !M F 2L;G+ 9 A
"PICUL> RESPECT &! O!R ABSOLUTELY4 ,S T
IF ? "O 2L;GS ABSOLUTELY & T "O 9 A
"PICUL> RESPECT1 "! IS Z YET NO REFUT,N4
,? IS A F1TURE "O HAS 6F9D 9 ! 3CLU.N
0EXAM9+ X 9 -P>ISON ) XS 3TRADICTORY4
  ,ALL >GU;TS (! FOLL[+ K9D H ? F1TURE3
,8,IS X POSSI# = :AT IS-N 6BE8 8,NO40
,B1 Y SEE1 X IS "S?+1 DESPITE XS N 2+40'
,LIKEWISE AL1 ,2+ W N BE2 = X W N HE "S
"PICUL> =M ( 2+4 ,IS X POSSI# =! SAME
MAN AT ! SAME "T 6BE A KEEP] &A BR1K] (
8 OA?80' ,8,C ! SAME MAN AT ! SAME "T
BO? OBEY & 4OBEY ! SAME MAN80' ,OR ISN'T
X ! CASE T 2+ "S?+ 9 "PICUL> & ,2+ >E N
! SAME8 ,ON ! O!R H&1 ,N-2+1 EV5 IF X 2
"S?+1 NE$ N AL H ABSOLUTE ,82+0' Z WELL4
,NOR IF A MAN KEEPS 8 OA? 9 ? "PICUL>
9/.E OR 9 ? "PICUL> RESPECT1 IS HE B.D
AL 6BE A KEEP] ( OA?S ABSOLUTELY1 B HE
:O SWE>S T HE W BR1K 8 OA?1 & !N BR1KS
X1 KEEPS ? "PICUL> OA? ONLY2 HE IS N A
KEEP] ( 8 OA?3 NOR IS ! 4OB$I5T MAN
,8OB$I5T0'1 ?\< HE OBEYS "O "PICUL> -M&4
,! >GU;T IS SIMIL>1 AL1 Z REG>DS ! PRO#M
:E!R ! SAME MAN C AT ! SAME "T SAY :AT
IS BO? FALSE & TRUE3 B X APPE>S 6BE A
TR\#"S "Q 2C X IS N EASY 6SEE 9 : (! TWO
3NEXIONS ! ^W ,8ABSOLUTELY0' IS 6BE
R5D]$-) ,8TRUE0' OR ) ,8FALSE0'4 ,"! IS1
H["E1 NO?+ 6PREV5T X F 2+ FALSE
ABSOLUTELY1 ?\< TRUE 9 "S "PICUL>
RESPECT OR REL,N1 I4E4 2+ TRUE 9 "S ?+S1
?\< N ,8TRUE0' ABSOLUTELY4 ,LIKEWISE AL
9 CASES ( "S "PICUL> REL,N & PLACE & "T4
,= ALL >GU;TS (! FOLL[+ K9D DEP5D ^U
?40' ,IS H1L?1 OR W1L?1 A GD ?+80'
,8,YES40' ,8,B 6! FOOL :O DOES N USE X
A"R X IS N A GD ?+3 "!=E X IS BO? GD & N
GD40' ,8,IS H1L?1 OR POLITICAL P[]1 A GD
?+80' ,8,YES4 8,B "S"TS X IS N "PICUL>LY
GD3 "!=E ! SAME ?+ IS BO? GD & N GD 6!
SAME MAN40' ,OR R "! IS NO?+ 6PREV5T A
?+1 ?\< GD ABSOLUTELY1 2+ N GD 6A
"PICUL> MAN1 OR 2+ GD 6A "PICUL> MAN1 &
YET N GD OR "H4 ,8,IS T : ! PRUD5T MAN
WD N WI%1 AN EVIL80' ,8,YES40' ,8,B 6GET
RID (1 HE WD N WI% ! GD3 "!=E ! GD IS AN
EVIL40' ,B T IS A MISTAKE2 = X IS N !
SAME ?+ 6SAY ,8,! GD IS AN EVIL0' &
,86GET RID (! GD IS AN EVIL0'4 ,LIKEWISE
AL ! >GU;T (! ?IEF IS MISTAK54 ,= X IS N
! CASE T IF ! ?IEF IS AN EVIL ?+1
ACQUIR+ ?+S IS AL EVIL3 :AT HE WI%ES1
"!=E1 IS N :AT IS EVIL B :AT IS GD2 =
6ACQUIRE "S?+ GD IS GD4 ,AL1 41SE IS AN
EVIL ?+1 B N 6GET RID ( 41SE4 ,8,IS ! J
PREF]A# 6! UNJU/1 & :AT TAKES PLACE
JU/LY 6:AT TAKES PLACE UNJU/LY8
,8,YES40' ,8,B 66BE PUT 6D1? UNJU/LY IS
PREF]A#40' ,8,IS X J T EA* %D H 8 [N80'
,8,YES40' ,8,B :AT"E DECI.NS A MAN -ES
6ON ! /R5G? ( 8 P]SONAL OP9ION1 EV5 IF X
2 A FALSE OP9ION1 >E VALID 9 LAW3 "!=E !
SAME RESULT IS BO? J & UNJU/40' ,AL1 %D
"O DECIDE 9 FAV\R ( HM :O SAYS :AT IS
UNJU/80' ,8,! =M]40' ,8,B Y SEE1 X IS J
=! 9JUR$ "PY 6SAY FULLY ! ?+S HE HAS
SU6]$2 & ^! >E FALLACIES4 ,= 2C 6SU6] A
?+ UNJU/LY IS PREF]A#1 UNJU/ WAYS >E N
"!=E PREF]A#1 ?\< 9 ? "PICUL> CASE !
UNJU/ MAY V WELL 2 BETT] ?AN ! J4 ,AL1
6H "O'S [N IS J1 :ILE 6H :AT IS ANO!R'S
IS N J3 ALL ! SAME1 ! DECI.N 9 "Q MAY V
WELL 2 A J DECI.N1 :AT"E X 2 T ! OP9ION
(! MAN :O GAVE ! DECI.N SUPPORTS3 = 2C X
IS J 9 ? "PICUL> CASE OR 9 ? "PICUL>
MANN]1 X IS N AL J ABSOLUTELY4 ,LIKEWISE
AL1 ?\< ?+S >E UNJU/1 "! IS NO?+ 6PREV5T
! SP1K+ ( !M 2+ J3 = 2C 6SP1K ( ?+S IS
J1 "! IS NO NECESS;Y T ! ?+S %D 2 J1 ANY
M ?AN 2C 6SP1K ( ?+S 2 ( USE1 ! ?+S NE$
2 ( USE4 ,LIKEWISE AL 9 ! CASE ( :AT IS
J4 ,S T X IS N ! CASE T 2C ! ?+S SPOK5 (
>E UNJU/1 ! VICTORY GOES 6HM :O SP1KS
UNJU/ ?+S3 = HE SP1KS ( ?+S T >E J 6SP1K
(1 ?\< ABSOLUTELY1 I4E4 6SU6]1 !Y >E
UNJU/4

                  #BF

  ,REFUT,NS T DEP5D ON ! DEF9I;N (A
REFUT,N M/1 AC 6! PLAN SKET*$ ABV1 2 MET
0-P>+ TGR ! 3CLU.N ) XS 3TRADICTORY1 &
SEE+ T X % 9VOLVE ! SAME ATTRIBUTE 9 !
SAME RESPECT & REL,N & MANN] & "T4 ,IF ?
A4I;NAL "Q 2 PUT AT ! />T1 Y %D N ADMIT
T X IS IMPOSSI# =! SAME ?+ 6BE BO? D\# &
N D\#1 B GRANT T X IS POSSI#1 ONLY N 9
S* A WAY Z 0 AGRE$ 63/ITUTE A REFUT,N (
YR CASE4 ,ALL ! FOLL[+ >GU;TS DEP5D ^U A
PO9T ( T K9D4 ,8,DOES A MAN :O "KS ,A
6BE ;,A1 "K ! ?+ CALL$ ,A80' & 9 ! SAME
WAY1 ,8IS "O :O IS IGNORANT T ,A IS ,A
IGNORANT (! ?+ CALL$ ,A80' ,8,YES40'
,8,B "O :O "KS T ,CORISCUS IS ,CORISCUS
MI<T 2 IGNORANT (! FACT T HE IS MUSICAL1
S T HE BO? "KS & IS IGNORANT (! SAME
?+40' ,IS A ?+ F\R CUBITS L;G GRT] ?AN A
?+ ?REE CUBITS L;G80' ,8,YES40' ,8,B A
?+ MI<T GR[ F ?REE 6F\R CUBITS 9 L5G?2
,8N[ :AT IS ,8GRT]0' IS GRT] ?AN A
,8LESS0'3 ACLY ! ?+ 9 "Q W 2 BO? GRT] &
LESS ?AN XF 9 ! SAME RESPECT4

                  #BG

  ,Z 6REFUT,NS T DEP5D ON BE7+ & ASSUM+
! ORIG9AL PO9T 6BE PROV$1 SUPPOSE !
NATURE (! "Q 6BE OBVI\S1 "O %D N GRANT
X1 EV5 ?\< X 2 A VIEW G5],Y HELD1 B %D
TELL HM ! TRU?4 ,SUPPOSE1 H["E1 T X
ESCAPES "O1 !N1 ?ANKS 6! BAD;S ( >GU;TS
( T K9D1 "O %D MAKE "O'S ]ROR RECOIL ^U
! "Q]1 & SAY T HE HAS BR"\ NO >GU;T3 =A
REFUT,N M/ 2 PROV$ 9DEP5D5TLY (! ORIG9AL
PO9T4 ,SECONDLY1 "O %D SAY T ! PO9T 0
GRANT$ "U ! IMPRES.N T HE 9T5D$ N 6USE X
Z A PREMISS1 B 6R1SON AG/ X1 9 !
OPPOSITE WAY F T ADOPT$ 9 REFUT,NS ON
SIDE ISSUES4


                  #BH

  ,AL1 ^? REFUT,NS T BR+ "O 6_! 3CLU.N
"? ! 3SEQU5T Y %D %[ UP 9 ! C\RSE (!
>GU;T XF4 ,! MODE 9 : 3SEQU;ES FOLL[ IS
TWOFOLD4 ,=! >GU;T EI IS T Z ! UNIV]SAL
FOLL[S ON XS "PICUL>-Z 7E4G47 ,8ANIMAL0'
FOLL[S F ,8MAN'-S DOES ! "PICUL> ON XS
UNIV]SAL3 =! CLAIM IS MADE T IF ,A IS
ALW F.D ) ;,B1 !N ;,B AL IS ALW F.D )
,A4 ,OR ELSE X PROCE$S 0WAY (! OPPOSITES
(! T]MS 9VOLV$3 = IF ,A FOLL[S ;,B1 X IS
CLAIM$ T ;,A'S OPPOSITE W FOLL[ ;,B'S
OPPOSITE4 ,ON ? LATT] CLAIM ! >GU;T (
,MELISSUS AL DEP5DS3 = HE CLAIMS T 2C T
: HAS -E 6BE HAS A 2G9N+1 T : HAS N -E
6BE HAS N"O1 S T IF ! H1V5 HAS N -E 6BE1
X IS AL ET]NAL4 ,B T IS N S2 =! SEQU;E
IS VICE V]SA4

                  #BI

  ,9 ! CASE ( ANY REFUT,NS ^: R1SON+
DEP5DS ON "S A4I;N1 LOOK & SEE IF ^U XS
SUBTRAC;N ! ABSURD;Y FOLL[S N"O ! LESS3
& !N IF S1 ! ANSW]] %D PO9T ? \1 & SAY T
HE GRANT$ ! A4I;N N 2C HE RE,Y ?"\ X1 B
=! SAKE (! >GU;T1 ":AS ! "Q] HAS N US$ X
=! PURPOSE ( 8 >GU;T AT ALL4

                  #CJ

  ,6MEET ^? REFUT,NS : MAKE S"EAL "QS
96"O1 "O %D DRAW A 4T9C;N 2T !M /RAI<T
AWAY AT ! />T4 ,=A "Q M/ 2 S+LE 6: "! IS
A S+LE ANSW]1 S T "O M/ N A6IRM OR D5Y
S"EAL ?+S ( "O ?+1 NOR "O ?+ ( _M1 B "O
( "O4 ,B J Z 9 ! CASE ( AMBIGU\S T]MS1
AN ATTRIBUTE 2L;GS 6A T]M "S"TS 9 BO? XS
S5SES1 & "S"TS 9 NEI1 S T A SIMPLE ANSW]
DOES "O1 Z X HAPP5S1 NO H>M DESPITE !
FACT T ! "Q IS N SIMPLE1 S X IS 9 ^!
CASES ( D\# "QS TOO4 ,:5"E1 !N1 ! S"EAL
ATTRIBUTES 2L;G 6! "O SUBJECT1 OR ! "O
6! _M1 ! MAN :O GIVES A SIMPLE ANSW]
5C.T]S NO OB/ACLE EV5 ?\< HE HAS -MITT$
? MISTAKE3 B :5"E AN ATTRIBUTE 2L;GS 6"O
SUBJECT B N 6! O!R1 OR "! IS A "Q (A
NUMB] ( ATTRIBUTES 2L;G+ 6A NUMB] (
SUBJECTS & 9 "O S5SE BO? 2L;G 6BO?1 :ILE
9 ANO!R S5SE1 AG1 !Y D N1 !N "! IS TR\#1
S T "O M/ 2W>E ( ?4 ,?US 7E4G47 9 !
FOLL[+ >GU;TS3 ,SUPPOS+ 6BE GD & ;,B
EVIL1 Y W1 IF Y GIVE A S+LE ANSW] AB
BO?1 2 -PELL$ 6SAY T X IS TRUE 6CALL ^!
GD1 & T X IS TRUE 6CALL !M EVIL &
LIKEWISE 6CALL !M NEI GD NOR EVIL 7= EA*
( !M HAS N EA* "*71 S T ! SAME ?+ W 2
BO? GD & EVIL & NEI GD NOR EVIL4 ,AL1
S9CE "EY?+ IS ! SAME Z XF & DI6]5T F
ANY?+ ELSE1 9ASM* Z ! MAN :O ANSW]S D\#
"QS SIMPLY C 2 MADE 6SAY T S"EAL ?+S >E
,8! SAME0' N Z O!R ?+S B ,8Z !MVS0'1 &
AL T !Y >E DI6]5T F !MVS1 X FOLL[S T !
SAME ?+S M/ 2 BO? ! SAME Z & DI6]5T F
!MVS4 ,MOREOV]1 IF :AT IS GD 2COMES EVIL
:ILE :AT IS EVIL IS GD1 !N !Y M/ BO?
2COME TWO4 ,S ( TWO UNEQUAL ?+S EA* 2+
EQUAL 6XF1 X W FOLL[ T !Y >E BO? EQUAL &
UNEQUAL 6!MVS4
  ,N[ ^! REFUT,NS FALL 96! PROV9CE ( O!R
SOLU;NS Z WELL3 = ,8BO?0' & ,8ALL0' H M
?AN "O M1N+1 S T ! RESULT+ A6IRM,N &
D5IAL (! SAME ?+ DOES N O3UR1 EXCEPT
V]B,Y3 & ? IS N :AT WE M1NT 0A REFUT,N4
,B X IS CLE> T IF "! 2 N PUT A S+LE "Q
ON A NUMB] ( PO9TS1 B ! ANSW]] HAS
A6IRM$ OR D5I$ "O ATTRIBUTE ONLY ( "O
SUBJECT ONLY1 ! ABSURD;Y W N -E 6PASS4

                  #CA

  ,) REG>D 6^? :O DRAW "O 96REP1T+ !
SAME ?+ A NUMB] ( "TS1 X IS CLE> T "O M/
N GRANT T PR$IC,NS ( RELATIVE T]MS H ANY
M1N+ 9 AB/RAC;N 0!MVS1 E4G4 T ,8D\#0' IS
A SIGNIFICANT T]M A"P F ! :OLE PHRASE
,8D\# ( HALF0' M]ELY ON ! GR.D T X
FIGURES 9 X4 ,= T5 FIGURES 9 ,8T5 M9US
"O0' & 9 ,8N D0'1 & G5],Y ! A6IRM,N 9 !
NEG,N2 B = ALL T1 SUPPOSE ANY "O 7 6SAY1
,8,? IS N :ITE0'1 HE DOES N SAY T X IS
:ITE4 ,! B>E ^W ,8D\#0'1 "O MAY P]H SAY1
HAS N EV5 ANY M1N+ AT ALL1 ANY M ?AN HAS
,8!0' 9 ,8! HALF0'3 & EV5 IF X HAS A
M1N+1 YET X HAS N ! SAME M1N+ Z 9 !
-B9,N4 ,NOR IS ,8K0' ! SAME ?+ 9 A
SPECIFIC BRAN* ( X 7SUPPOSE X1 E4G4 6BE
,8M$ICAL K0'7 Z X IS 9 G5]AL3 = 9 G5]AL
X 0 ! ,8K (! "KA#0'4 ,9 ! CASE ( T]MS T
>E PR$ICAT$ (! T]MS "? : !Y >E DEF9$1 Y
%D SAY ! SAME ?+1 T ! T]M DEF9$ IS N !
SAME 9 AB/RAC;N Z X IS 9 ! :OLE PHRASE4
,= ,83CAVE0' HAS A G5]AL M1N+ : IS !
SAME 9 ! CASE (A SNUB NOSE1 &(A B&Y LEG1
B :5 A4$ 6EI SUB/ANTIVE NO?+ PREV5TS X F
DI6]5TIAT+ XS M1N+2 9 FACT X BE>S "O
S5SE Z APPLI$ 6! NOSE1 & ANO!R Z APPLI$
6! LEG3 = 9 ! =M] 3NEXION X M1NS
,8SNUB0' & 9 ! LATT] ,8B&Y%AP$0'2 I4E4 X
MAKES NO DI6];E :E!R Y SAY 'A SNUB
NOSE0' OR 'A 3CAVE NOSE0'4 ,MOREOV]1 !
EXPRES.N M/ N 2 GRANT$ 9 ! NOM9ATIVE
CASE3 = X IS A FALSEHOOD4 ,= SNUB;S IS N
A 3CAVE NOSE B "S?+ 7E4G4 AN A6EC;N7
2L;G+ 6A NOSE3 H;E1 "! IS NO ABSURD;Y 9
SUPPOS+ T ! SNUB NOSE IS A NOSE POSSESS+
! 3CAV;Y T 2L;GS 6A NOSE4

                  #CB

  ,) REG>D 6SOLECISMS1 WE H PREVI\SLY SD
:AT X IS T APPE>S 6BR+ !M AB2 ! ME?OD (
_! SOLU;N W 2 CLE> 9 ! C\RSE (! >GU;TS
!MVS4 ,SOLECISM IS ! RESULT AIM$ AT 9
ALL >GU;TS (! FOLL[+ K9D3 ,8,IS A ?+
TRULY T : Y TRULY CALL X80' ,8,YES0'4
,8,B1 SP1K+ (A /"O1 Y CALL HM R1L3 "!=E
(A /"O X FOLL[S T 8HM IS R1L040' ,NO3 R1
TALK+ (A /"O M1NS N SAY+ :0' B ,8:OM0'1
& N ,8T0' B ,8HM0'4 ,IF1 !N1 ANY "O 7
6ASK1 ,8,IS A /"O HM :OM Y TRULY CALL
HM80' HE WD 2 G5],Y ?"\ N 6BE SP1K+ GD
,GREEK1 ANY M ?AN IF HE 7 6ASK1 ,8,IS HE
:AT Y CALL H]80' ,SP1K 9 ? WAY (A
,8/ICK0' OR ANY NEUT] ^W1 &! DI6];E DOES
N BR1K \4 ,= ? R1SON1 AL1 NO SOLECISM IS
9CURR$1 SUPPOSE ANY "O ASKS1 ,8,IS A ?+
:AT Y SAY X 6BE80' ,8,YES0'4 ,8,B1 SP1K+
(A /ICK1 Y CALL X R1L3 "!=E1 (A /ICK X
FOLL[S T X IS R1L40' ,8,/"O0'1 H["E1 &
,8HE0' H MASCUL9E DESIGN,NS4 ,N[ SUPPOSE
"S "O 7 6ASK1 ,8,C 8HE0 2 A %E0 7A
FEMALE780'1 & !N AG1 ,8,WELL1 B IS N HE
,CORISCUS80' & !N 7 6SAY1 ,8,!N HE IS A
8%E010' HE HAS N PROV$ ! SOLECISM1 EV5
IF ! "N ,8,CORISCUS0' DOES SIGNIFY A
,8%E0'1 IF1 ON ! O!R H&1 ! ANSW]] DOES N
GRANT ?3 ? PO9T M/ 2 PUT Z AN A4I;NAL
"Q3 :ILE IF NEI IS X ! FACT NOR DOES HE
GRANT X1 !N ! SOPHI/ HAS N PROV$ 8 CASE
EI 9 FACT OR Z AG/ ! P]SON HE HAS BE5
"Q+4 ,9 L MANN]1 !N1 9 ! ABV 9/.E Z WELL
X M/ 2 DEF9ITELY PUT T ,8HE0' M1NS !
/"O4 ,IF1 H["E1 ? NEI IS S NOR IS
GRANT$1 ! 3CLU.N M/ N 2 /AT$3 ?\< X
FOLL[S APP>5TLY1 2C ! CASE 7!
A3USATIVE71 T IS RE,Y UNLIKE1 APPE>S 6BE
L ! NOM9ATIVE4 ,8,IS X TRUE 6SAY T ?
OBJECT IS :AT Y CALL X 0"N80' ,8,YES0'4
,8,B Y CALL X 0! "N (A %IELD3 ? OBJECT
"!=E IS 8(A %IELD040' ,NO3 N NECESS>ILY1
2C ! M1N+ ( ,8? OBJECT0' IS N ,8(A
%IELD0' B 'A %IELD0'3 ,8(A %IELD0' WD 2
! M1N+ ( ,8? OBJECT'S0'4 ,NOR AG IF
,8,HE IS :AT Y CALL HM 0"N0'1 :ILE ,8!
"N Y CALL HM 0IS ,CLEON'S0'1 IS HE "!=E
,8,CLEON'S0'3 = HE IS N ,8,CLEON'S0'1 =
:AT 0 SD 0 T ,8,HE1 N HIS1 IS :AT ,I
CALL HM 0"N0'4 ,=! "Q1 IF PUT 9 ! LATT]
WAY1 WD N EV5 2 ,GREEK4 ,8,D Y "K ?80'
,8,YES40' ,8,B ? IS HE3 "!=E Y "K HE0'4
,NO3 R ,8?0' HAS N ! SAME M1N+ 9 ,8,D Y
"K ?80' Z 9 ,8,? IS A /"O0'2 9 ! F/ X
/&S = AN A3USATIVE1 9 ! SECOND =A
NOM9ATIVE CASE4 ,8,:5 Y H "U/&+ ( ANY?+1
D Y "U/& X80' ,8,YES40' ,8,B Y H "U/&+ (
A /"O3 "!=E Y "U/& (A /"O40' ,NO3 ! "O
PHRASE IS 9 ! G5ITIVE1 ,8(A /"O0'1 :ILE
! O!R IS 9 ! A3USATIVE1 'A /"O0'3 & :AT
0 GRANT$ 0 T ,8Y "U/& T1 N ( T1 ( : Y H
"U/&+0'1 S T Y "U/& N ,8(A /"O0'1 B ,8!
/"O0'4
  ,?US T >GU;TS ( ? K9D D N PROVE
SOLECISM B M]ELY APPE> 6D S1 & BO? :Y !Y
S APPE> & H[ Y %D MEET !M1 IS CLE> F :AT
HAS BE5 SD4

                  #CC

  ,WE M/ AL OBS]VE T ( ALL ! >GU;TS
A=ESD X IS EASI] ) "S 6SEE :Y & ": !
R1SON+ L1DS ! HE>] A/RAY1 :ILE ) O!RS X
IS M DI6ICULT1 ?\< (T5 !Y >E ! SAME
>GU;TS Z ! =M]4 ,= WE M/ CALL AN >GU;T !
SAME IF X DEP5DS ^U ! SAME PO9T2 B !
SAME >GU;T IS APT 6BE ?"\ 0"S 6DEP5D ON
DIC;N1 0O!RS ON A3ID5T1 & 0O!RS ON "S?+
ELSE1 2C EA* ( !M1 :5 "W$ ) DI6]5T T]MS1
IS N S CLE> Z X WAS4 ,ACLY1 J Z 9
FALLACIES T DEP5D ON AMBIGU;Y1 : >E
G5],Y ?"\ 6BE ! SILLIE/ =M ( FALLACY1 "S
>E CLE> EV5 6! MAN 9 ! /REET 7= HUMOR\S
PHRASES NE>LY ALL DEP5D ON DIC;N2 E4G4
,8,! MAN GOT ! C>T D[N F ! /&0'2 & ,8,":
>E Y B.D80' ,8,6! Y>D >M0'2 & ,8,: C[ W
CALVE A=E80' ,8,NEI1 B BO? 2H20' & ,8,IS
! ,NOR? W9D CLE>80' ,8,NO1 9DE$2 = X HAS
MURD]$ ! BE7> &! M]*ANT40 ,IS HE A ,GD
5\<-,K+80' ,8,NO1 9DE$2 A ,ROB-SON0'3 &
S )! GRT MAJOR;Y (! RE/ Z WELL71 :ILE
O!RS APPE> 6ELUDE ! MO/ EXP]T 7& X IS A
SYMPTOM ( ? T !Y (T5 FI<T AB _! T]MS1
E4G4 :E!R ! M1N+ ( ,8,2+0' & ,8,"O0' IS
! SAME 9 ALL _! APPLIC,NS OR DI6]5T2 =
"S ?9K T ,8,2+0' & ,8,"O0' M1N ! SAME2
:ILE O!RS SOLVE ! >GU;T ( ,Z5O &
,P>M5IDES 0ASS]T+ T ,8,"O0' & ,8,2+0' >E
US$ 9 A NUMB] ( S5SES71 LIKEWISE AL Z
REG>DS FALLACIES ( ,A3ID5T & EA* (! O!R
TYPES1 "S (! >GU;TS W 2 EASI] 6SEE :ILE
O!RS >E M DI6ICULT2 AL 6GRASP 6: CLASS A
FALLACY 2L;GS1 & :E!R X IS A REFUT,N OR
N A REFUT,N1 IS N EQU,Y EASY 9 ALL
CASES4
  ,AN 9CISIVE >GU;T IS "O : PRODUCES !
GRTE/ P]PLEX;Y3 = ? IS ! "O )! %>PE/
FANG4 ,N[ P]PLEX;Y IS TWOFOLD1 "O :
O3URS 9 R1SON$ >GU;TS1 RESPECT+ : (!
PROPOSI;NS ASK$ "O IS 6DEMOLI%1 &! O!R 9
3T5TI\S >GU;TS1 RESPECT+ ! MANN] 9 : "O
IS 6ASS5T 6:AT IS PROP.D$4 ,"!=E X IS 9
SYLLOGI/IC >GU;TS T ! M 9CISIVE "OS
PRODUCE ! KE5E/ HE>T-SE>*+4 ,N[ A
SYLLOGI/IC >GU;T IS MO/ 9CISIVE IF F
PREMISSES T >E Z G5],Y A3EPT$ Z POSSI# X
DEMOLI%ES A 3CLU.N T IS A3EPT$ Z G5],Y Z
POSSI#4 ,=! "O >GU;T1 IF ! 3TRADICTORY
IS *ANG$ AB1 MAKES ALL ! RESULT+
SYLLOGISMS ALIKE 9 "*3 = ALW F PREMISSES
T >E G5],Y A3EPT$ X W PROVE A 3CLU.N1
NEGATIVE OR POSITIVE Z ! CASE MAY BE1 T
IS J Z G5],Y A3EPT$2 & "!=E "O IS B.D
6FEEL P]PLEX$4 ,AN >GU;T1 !N1 ( ? K9D IS
! MO/ 9CISIVE1 VIZ4 ! "O T PUTS XS
3CLU.N ON ALL F\RS )! PROPOSI;NS ASK$2 &
SECOND -ES ! "O T >GUES F PREMISSES1 ALL
( : >E EQU,Y 3V9C+3 = ? W PRODUCE AN
EQUAL P]PLEX;Y Z 6:AT K9D ( PREMISS1 (
^? ASK$1 "O %D DEMOLI%4 ,"H9 IS A
DI6ICULTY3 = "O M/ DEMOLI% "S?+1 B :AT
"O M/ DEMOLI% IS UNC]TA94 ,( 3T5TI\S
>GU;TS1 ON ! O!R H&1 ! MO/ 9CISIVE IS !
"O :1 9 ! F/ PLACE1 IS "*IZ$ 0AN 9ITIAL
UNC]TA9TY :E!R X HAS BE5 PROP]LY R1SON$
OR N2 & AL :E!R ! SOLU;N DEP5DS ON A
FALSE PREMISS OR ON ! DRAW+ (A 4T9C;N2
:ILE1 (! RE/1 ! SECOND PLACE IS HELD 0T
^: SOLU;N CLE>LY DEP5DS ^U A 4T9C;N OR A
DEMOLI;N1 & YET X DOES N REV1L CLE>LY :
X IS (! PREMISSES ASK$1 ^: DEMOLI;N1 OR
! DRAW+ (A 4T9C;N )9 X1 W BR+ ! SOLU;N
AB1 B EV5 L1VES X VAGUE :E!R X IS ON !
3CLU.N OR ON "O (! PREMISSES T ! DECEP;N
DEP5DS4
  ,N[ "S"TS AN >GU;T : HAS N BE5 PROP]LY
R1SON$ IS SILLY1 SUPPOS+ ! ASSUMP;NS
REQUIR$ 6BE EXTREMELY 3TR>Y 6! G5]AL
VIEW OR FALSE2 B "S"TS X "\ N 6BE HELD 9
3TEMPT4 ,= :5"E "S "Q IS LEFT \1 (! K9D
T 3C]NS BO? ! SUBJECT &! N]VE (! >GU;T1
! R1SON+ T HAS BO? FAIL$ 6SECURE ? Z
WELL1 & AL FAIL$ 6R1SON PROP]LY1 IS
SILLY2 B :5 :AT IS OMITT$ IS "S
EXTRANE\S "Q1 !N X IS 0NO M1NS 6BE
LI<TLY DESPIS$1 B ! >GU;T IS Q
RESPECTA#1 ?\< ! "Q] HAS N PUT 8 "QS
WELL4
  ,J Z X IS POSSI# 6BR+ A SOLU;N "S"TS
AG/ ! >GU;T1 AT O!RS AG/ ! "Q] & 8 MODE
( "Q+1 & AT O!RS AG/ NEI ( ^!1 LIKEWISE
AL X IS POSSI# 6M>%AL "O'S "QS & R1SON+
BO? AG/ ! !SIS1 & AG/ ! ANSW]] & AG/ !
"T1 :5"E ! SOLU;N REQUIRES A L;G] "T
6EXAM9E ?AN ! P]IOD AVAILA#4

                  #CD

  ,Z 6! NUMB]1 !N1 & K9D ( S\RCES :;E
FALLACIES >ISE 9 4CUS.N1 & H[ WE >E 6%[
T \R OPPON5T IS -MITT+ A FALLACY & MAKE
HM UTT] P>ADOXES2 MOREOV]1 0! USE ( :AT
MAT]IALS SOLESCISM IS BR"\ AB1 & H[ 6"Q
& :AT IS ! WAY 6>RANGE ! "QS2 MOREOV]1 Z
6! "Q :AT USE IS S]V$ 0ALL >GU;TS ( ?
K9D1 & 3C]N+ ! ANSW]]'S "P1 BO? Z A :OLE
9 G5]AL1 & 9 "PICUL> H[ 6SOLVE >GU;TS &
SOLECISMS-ON ALL ^! ?+S LET ! =EGO+
4CUS.N SU6ICE4 ,X REMA9S 6RECALL \R
ORIG9AL PROPOSAL & 6BR+ \R 4CUS.N 6A
CLOSE )A FEW ^WS ^U X4
  ,\R PROGRAMME WAS1 !N1 64COV] "S
FACULTY ( R1SON+ AB ANY !ME PUT 2F U F !
MO/ G5],Y A3EPT$ PREMISSES T "! >E4 ,= T
IS ! ESS5TIAL TASK (! >T ( 4CUS.N
7DIALECTIC7 &( EXAM9,N 7PEIRA/IC74
,9ASM*1 H["E1 Z X IS ANNEX$ 6X1 ON A3.T
(! NE> PRES;E (! >T ( SOPHI/RY
7SOPHI/IC71 N ONLY 6BE A# 63DUCT AN
EXAM9,N DIALECTIC,Y B AL )A %[ ( K1 WE
"!=E PROPOS$ = \R TR1TISE N ONLY ! A=ESD
AIM ( 2+ A# 6EXACT AN A3.T ( ANY VIEW1 B
AL ! AIM ( 5SUR+ T 9 /&+ UP 6AN >GU;T WE
% DEF5D \R !SIS 9 ! SAME MANN] 0M1NS (
VIEWS Z G5],Y HELD Z POSSI#4 ,! R1SON (
? WE H EXPLA9$2 = ?1 TOO1 0 :Y ,SOCRATES
US$ 6ASK "QS & N 6ANSW] !M2 = HE US$
63FESS T HE DID N "K4 ,WE H MADE CLE>1 9
! C\RSE ( :AT PREC$ES1 ! NUMB] BO? (!
PO9TS ) REF];E 6:1 &(! MAT]IALS F :1 ? W
2 A3OMPLI%$1 & AL F :AT S\RCES WE C
2COME WELL SUPPLI$ ) ^!3 WE H %[N1
MOREOV]1 H[ 6"Q OR >RANGE ! "Q+ Z A
:OLE1 &! PRO#MS 3C]N+ ! ANSW]S & SOLU;NS
6BE US$ AG/ ! R1SON+S (! "Q]4 ,WE H AL
CLE>$ UP ! PRO#MS 3C]N+ ALL O!R MATT]S T
2L;G 6! SAME 9QUIRY 96>GU;TS4 ,9 A4I;N
6? WE H BE5 "? ! SUBJECT ( ,FALLACIES1 Z
WE H ALR /AT$ ABV4
  ,T \R PROGRAMME1 !N1 HAS BE5
ADEQUATELY -PLET$ IS CLE>4 ,B WE M/ N
OMIT 6NOTICE :AT HAS HAPP5$ 9 REG>D 6?
9QUIRY4 ,= 9 ! CASE ( ALL 4COV]IES !
RESULTS ( PREVI\S LAB\RS T H BE5 H&$ D[N
F O!RS H BE5 ADV.ED BIT 0BIT 0^? :O H
TAK5 !M ON1 ":AS ! ORIG9AL 4COV]IES
G5],Y MAKE ADV.E T IS SMALL AT F/ ?\< M*
M USE;L ?AN ! DEVELOP;T : LAT] SPR+S \ (
!M4 ,= X MAY 2 T 9 "EY?+1 Z ! SAY+ IS1
,8! F/ />T IS ! MA9 "P0'3 &= ? R1SON AL
X IS ! MO/ DI6ICULT2 = 9 PROPOR;N Z X IS
MO/ POT5T 9 XS 9FLU;E1 S X IS SMALLE/ 9
XS -PASS & "!=E MO/ DI6ICULT 6SEE3 ":AS
:5 ? IS ONCE 4COV]$1 X IS EASI] 6ADD &
DEVELOP ! REMA9D] 9 3NEXION ) X4 ,? IS 9
FACT :AT HAS HAPP5$ 9 REG>D 6RHETORICAL
SPEE*ES & 6PRACTIC,Y ALL ! O!R >TS3 = ^?
:O 4COV]$ ! 2G9N+S ( !M ADV.ED !M 9 ALL
ONLY A LL WAY1 ":AS ! CELEBRITIES ( TO-
"D >E ! HEIRS 7S 6SP1K7 (A L;G SU3ES.N (
M5 :O H ADV.ED !M BIT 0BIT1 & S H
DEVELOP$ !M 6_! PRES5T =M1 ,TISIAS -+
NEXT AF ! F/ F.D]S1 !N ,?RASYMA*US AF
,TISIAS1 & ,!ODORUS NEXT 6HM1 :ILE S"EAL
P H MADE _! S"EAL 3TRIBU;NS 6X3 & "!=E X
IS N 6BE WOND]$ AT T ! >T HAS ATTA9$
3SID]A# DIM5.NS4 ,( ? 9QUIRY1 ON ! O!R
H&1 X 0 N ! CASE T "P (! "W _H BE5
?OR\<LY D"O 2F1 :ILE "P _H N4 ,NO?+
EXI/$ AT ALL4 ,=! TRA9+ GIV5 0! PD
PROFESSORS ( 3T5TI\S >GU;TS 0 L ! TR1T;T
(! MATT] 0,GORGIAS4 ,= !Y US$ 6H& \
SPEE*ES 6BE LE>N$ 0HE>T1 "S RHETORICAL1
O!RS 9 ! =M ( "Q & ANSW]1 EA* SIDE
SUPPOS+ T _! >GU;TS ON EI SIDE G5],Y
FALL AM;G !M4 ,& "!=E ! T1*+ !Y GAVE _!
PUPILS 0 R1DY B R\<4 ,= !Y US$ 6SUPPOSE
T !Y TRA9$ P 0IM"P+ 6!M N ! >T B XS
PRODUCTS1 Z ?\< ANY "O PROFESS+ T HE WD
IM"P A =M ( K 6OBVIATE ANY PA9 9 ! FEET1
7 !N N 6T1* A MAN ! >T ( %OE-MAK+ OR !
S\RCES :;E HE C ACQUIRE ANY?+ (! K9D1 B
7 6PRES5T HM ) S"EAL K9DS ( %OES ( ALL
SORTS3 = HE HAS HELP$ HM 6MEET 8 NE$1 B
HAS N IM"P$ AN >T 6HM4 ,MOREOV]1 ON !
SUBJECT ( ,RHETORIC "! EXI/S M* T HAS
BE5 SD L;G AGO1 ":AS ON ! SUBJECT (
R1SON+ WE _H NO?+ ELSE ( AN E>LI] DATE
6SP1K ( AT ALL1 B 7 KEPT AT "W =A L;G "T
9 EXP]I;TAL RESE>*ES4 ,IF1 !N1 X SEEMS
6Y AF 9SPEC;N T1 S* 2+ ! SITU,N Z X
EXI/$ AT ! />T1 \R 9VE/IG,N IS 9 A
SATISFACTORY 3DI;N -P>$ )! O!R 9QUIRIES
T H BE5 DEVELOP$ 0TRADI;N1 "! M/ REMA9 =
ALL ( Y1 OR = \R /UD5TS1 ! TASK ( EXT5D+
U YR P>DON =! %ORTCOM+S (! 9QUIRY1 &=!
4COV]IES "!( YR W>M ?ANKS4

