               #CEJ ,,BC
      ,,ON ,,! ,,"PS ,,( ,,ANIMALS
               0,>I/OTLE
       TRANSLAT$ 0,WILLIAM ,OGLE

    ,TRANSLAT$ 6,GRADE ,,II ,BRL 0,MIKE
    ,KEI?LEY
                ,BOOK ,I
                   #A

  ,E SY/EMATIC SCI;E1 ! HUM#/ &! NO#/
ALIKE1 SEEMS 6ADMIT ( TWO 4T9CT K9DS (
PROFICI5CY2 "O ( : MAY 2 PROP]LY CALL$
SCI5TIFIC K (! SUBJECT1 :ILE ! O!R IS A
K9D ( $UC,NAL ACQUA9T.E ) X4 ,= AN
$UCAT$ MAN %D 2 A# 6=M A FAIR (F-H&
JUDGE;T Z 6! GD;S OR BAD;S (! ME?OD US$
0A PROFESSOR 9 8 EXPOSI;N4 ,6BE $UCAT$
IS 9 FACT 6BE A# 6D ?2 & EV5 ! MAN (
UNIV]SAL $UC,N WE DEEM 6BE S* 9 VIRTUE (
8 HAV+ ? ABIL;Y4 ,X W1 H["E1 ( C\RSE1 2
"U/OOD T WE ONLY ASCRIBE UNIV]SAL $UC,N
6"O :O 9 8 [N 9DIVIDUAL P]SON IS ?US
CRITICAL 9 ALL OR NE>LY ALL BRAN*ES ( K1
& N 6"O :O HAS A L ABIL;Y M]ELY 9 "S
SPECIAL SUBJECT4 ,= X IS POSSI# =A MAN
6H ? -PET;E 9 "S "O BRAN* ( K )\T HAV+ X
9 ALL4
  ,X IS PLA9 !N T1 Z 9 O!R SCI;ES1 S 9 T
: 9QUIRES 96NATURE1 "! M/ 2 C]TA9
CANONS1 0REF];E 6: A HE>] % 2 A#
6CRITICIZE ! ME?OD (A PROFESS$ EXPOSI;N1
Q 9DEP5D5TLY (! "Q :E!R ! /ATE;TS MADE 2
TRUE OR FALSE4 ,"\ WE1 = 9/.E 76GIVE AN
ILLU/R,N ( :AT ,I M1N71 62G9 04CUSS+ EA*
SEP>ATE SPECIES-MAN1 LION1 OX1 &! L-TAK+
EA* K9D 9 H& 9DE4 P5D5TLY (! RE/1 OR "\
WE R 6D1L F/ )! ATTRIBUTES : !Y H 9 -MON
9 VIRTUE ( "S -MON ELE;T ( _! NATURE1 &
PROCE$ F ? Z A BASIS =! 3SID],N ( !M
SEP>ATELY8 ,= G5]A T >E Q 4T9CT YET
(T5"TS PRES5T _M ID5TICAL PH5OM5A1
SLEEP1 = 9/.E1 RESPIR,N1 GR[?1 DECAY1
D1?1 & O!R SIMIL> A6EC;NS & 3DI;NS1 :
MAY 2 PASS$ OV] =! PRES5T1 Z WE >E N YET
PREP>$ 6TR1T ( !M ) CLE>;S & PRECI.N4
,N[ X IS PLA9 T IF WE D1L ) EA* SPECIES
9DEP5D5TLY (! RE/1 WE % FREQU5TLY 2
OBLIG$ 6REP1T ! SAME /ATE;TS OV] & OV]
AG2 = HORSE & DOG & MAN PRES5T1 EA* &
ALL1 E "O (! PH5OM5A J ENUM]AT$4 ,A
4CUS.N "!=E (! ATTRIBUTES ( EA* S*
SPECIES SEP>ATELY WD NECESS>ILY 9VOLVE
FREQU5T REPETI;NS Z 6"*S1 !MVS ID5TICAL
B RECURR+ 9 ANIMALS SPECIFIC,Y 4T9CT4
7,V POSSIBLY AL "! MAY 2 O!R "*S :1 ?\<
!Y PRES5T SPECIFIC DI6];ES1 YET -E "U "O
&! SAME CATEGORY4 ,= 9/.E1 FLY+1 SWIMM+1
WALK+1 CREEP+1 >E PLA9LY SPECIFIC,Y
4T9CT1 B YET >E ALL =MS ( ANIMAL
PROGRES.N47 ,WE M/1 !N1 H "S CLE> "U/&+
Z 6! MANN] 9 : \R 9VE/IG,N IS 6BE
3DUCT$2 :E!R1 ,I M1N1 WE >E F/ 6D1L )!
-MON OR G5]IC "*S1 & AFWS 6TAKE
963SID],N SPECIAL PECULI>ITIES2 OR :E!R
WE >E 6/>T /RAI<T (F )! ULTIMATE
SPECIES4 ,= Z YET NO DEF9ITE RULE HAS
BE5 LAID D[N 9 ? MATT]4 ,S AL "! IS A L
UNC]TA9TY Z 6ANO!R PO9T N[ 6BE M5;N$4
,"\ ! WRIT] :O D1LS )! "WS ( NATURE
6FOLL[ ! PLAN ADOPT$ 0! MA!MATICIANS 9
_! A/RONOMICAL DEMON/R,NS1 & AF 3SID]+ !
PH5OM5A PRES5T$ 0ANIMALS1 & _! S"EAL
"PS1 PROCE$ SUBSEQU5TLY 6TR1T (! CAUSES
&! R1SON :Y2 OR "\ HE 6FOLL[ "S O!R
ME?OD8 ,& :5 ^! "QS >E ANSW]$1 "! YET
REMA9S ANO!R4 ,! CAUSES 3C]N$ 9 ! G5],N
(! "WS ( NATURE >E1 Z WE SEE1 M ?AN "O4
,"! IS ! F9AL CAUSE & "! IS ! MOTOR
CAUSE4 ,N[ WE M/ DECIDE : ( ^! TWO
CAUSES -ES F/1 : SECOND4 ,PLA9LY1 H["E1
T CAUSE IS ! F/ : WE CALL ! F9AL "O4 ,=
? IS ! ,R1SON1 &! ,R1SON =MS ! />T+-
PO9T1 ALIKE 9 ! "WS ( >T & 9 "WS (
NATURE4 ,= 3SID] H[ ! PHYSICIAN OR H[ !
BUILD] SETS AB 8 "W4 ,HE />TS 0=M+ = HMF
A DEF9ITE PICTURE1 9 ! "O CASE P]CEPTI#
6M9D1 9 ! O!R 6S5SE1 ( 8 5D-! PHYSICIAN
( H1L?1 ! BUILD] (A H\SE-& ? HE HOLDS
=W>D Z ! R1SON & EXPLAN,N ( EA*
SUBSEQU5T /EP T HE TAKES1 &( 8 ACT+ 9 ?
OR T WAY Z ! CASE MAY BE4 ,N[ 9 ! "WS (
NATURE ! GD 5D &! F9AL CAUSE IS / M
DOM9ANT ?AN 9 "WS ( >T S* Z ^!1 NOR IS
NECESS;Y A FACTOR )! SAME SIGNIFIC.E 9
!M ALL2 ?\< ALM ALL WRIT]S1 :ILE !Y TRY
6REF] _! ORIG9 6? CAUSE1 D S )\T 4T+UI%+
! V>I\S S5SES 9 : ! T]M NECESS;Y IS US$4
,= "! IS ABSOLUTE NECESS;Y1 MANIFE/$ 9
ET]NAL PH5OM5A2 & "! IS HYPO!TICAL
NECESS;Y1 MANIFE/$ 9 "EY?+ T IS G5]AT$
0NATURE Z 9 "EY?+ T IS PRODUC$ 0>T1 2 X
A H\SE OR :AT X MAY4 ,= IF A H\SE OR O!R
S* F9AL OBJECT IS 6BE R1LIZ$1 X IS NEC T
S* & S* MAT]IAL % EXI/2 & X IS NEC T F/
? !N T % 2 PRODUC$1 & F/ ? & !N T SET 9
MO;N1 & S ON 9 3T9U\S SU3ES.N1 UNTIL !
5D & F9AL RESULT IS R1*$1 =! SAKE ( :
EA* PRIOR ?+ IS PRODUC$ & EXI/S4 ,Z ) ^!
PRODUC;NS ( >T1 S AL IS X )! PRODUC;NS (
NATURE4 ,! MODE ( NECESS;Y1 H["E1 &!
MODE ( RATIOC9,N >E DI6]5T 9 NATURAL
SCI;E F :AT !Y >E 9 ! !ORETICAL SCI;ES2
( : WE H SPOK5 ELSE":4 ,= 9 ! LATT] !
/>T+-PO9T IS T : IS2 9 ! =M] T : IS 6BE4
,= X IS T : IS YET 6BE-H1L?1 LET U SAY1
OR A MAN-T1 [+ 6XS 2+ ( S* & S* "*S1
NECESSITATES ! PRE-EXI/;E OR PREVI\S
PRODUC;N ( ? & T ANTEC$5T2 & N ? OR T
ANTEC$5T :1 2C X EXI/S OR HAS BE5
G5]AT$1 MAKES X NEC T H1L? OR A MAN IS
IN1 OR % -E 9TO1 EXI/;E4 ,NOR IS X
POSSI# 6TRACK BACK ! S]IES ( NEC
ANTEC$5TS 6A />T+-PO9T1 ( : Y C SAY T1
EXI/+ XF F ET]N;Y1 X HAS DET]M9$ _!
EXI/;E Z XS 3SEQU5T4 ,^! H["E AG1 >E
MATT]S T H BE5 D1LT ) 9 ANO!R TR1TISE4
,"! TOO X 0 /AT$ 9 :AT CASES ABSOLUTE &
HYPO!TICAL NECESS;Y EXI/2 9 :AT CASES AL
! PROPOSI;N EXPRESS+ HYPO!TICAL NECESS;Y
IS SIMPLY 3V]TI#1 & :AT CAUSE X IS T
DET]M9ES ? 3V]TIBIL;Y4
  ,ANO!R MATT] : M/ N 2 PASS$ OV] )\T
3SID],N IS1 :E!R ! PROP] SUBJECT ( \R
EXPOSI;N IS T ) : ! ANCI5T WRIT]S 3C]N$
!MVS1 "NLY1 :AT IS ! PROCESS ( =M,N (
EA* ANIMAL2 OR :E!R X IS N R1 :AT >E !
"*S (A GIV5 CR1TURE :5 =M$4 ,= "! IS NO
SMALL DI6];E 2T ^! TWO VIEWS4 ,! BE/
C\RSE APPE>S 6BE T WE %D FOLL[ ! ME?OD
ALR M5;N$1 & 2G9 )! PH5OM5A PRES5T$ 0EA*
GR\P ( ANIMALS1 &1 :5 ? IS D"O1 PROCE$
AFWS 6/ATE ! CAUSES ( ^? PH5OM5A1 & 6D1L
) _! EVOLU;N4 ,= ELSE":1 Z = 9/.E 9 H\SE
BUILD+1 ? IS ! TRUE SEQU;E4 ,! PLAN (!
H\SE1 OR ! H\SE1 HAS ? & T =M2 & 2C X
HAS ? & T =M1 "!=E IS XS 3/RUC;N C>RI$ \
9 ? OR T MANN]4 ,=! PROCESS ( EVOLU;N IS
=! SAKE (! ?+ ,AN,Y EVOLV$1 & N ? =!
SAKE (! PROCESS4 ,EMP$OCLES1 !N1 0 9
]ROR :5 HE SD T _M (! "*S PRES5T$
0ANIMALS 7 M]ELY ! RESULTS ( 9CID5TAL
O3URR;ES DUR+ _! DEVELOP;T2 = 9/.E1 T !
BACKB"O 0 DIVID$ Z X IS 96V]TEBRAE1 2C X
HAPP5$ 6BE BROK5 [+ 6! 3TORT$ POSI;N (!
FOETUS 9 ! WOMB4 ,9 S SAY+ HE OV]LOOK$ !
FACT T PROPAG,N IMPLIES A CR1TIVE SE$
5D[$ ) C]TA9 =MATIVE PROP]TIES4
,SECONDLY1 HE NEGLECT$ ANO!R FACT1 "NLY1
T ! P>5T ANIMAL PRE-EXI/S1 N ONLY 9
IDEA1 B ACTU,Y 9 "T4 ,= MAN IS G5]AT$ F
MAN2 & ?US X IS ! POSSES.N ( C]TA9 "*S
0! P>5T T DET]M9ES ! DEVELOP;T ( L "*S 9
! *4 ,! SAME /ATE;T HOLDS GD AL =!
OP],NS ( >T1 & EV5 = ^? : >E APP>5TLY
SPONTANE\S4 ,=! SAME RESULT Z IS PRODUC$
0>T MAY O3UR SPONTANE\SLY4 ,SPONTANE;Y1
= 9/.E1 MAY BR+ AB ! RE/OR,N ( H1L?4 ,!
PRODUCTS ( >T1 H["E1 REQUIRE ! PRE-
EXI/;E ( AN E6ICI5T CAUSE HOMOG5E\S )
!MVS1 S* Z ! /ATU>Y'S >T1 : M/
NECESS>ILY PREC$E ! /ATUE2 = ? _C
POSSIBLY 2 PRODUC$ SPONTANE\SLY4 ,>T
9DE$ 3SI/S 9 ! 3CEP;N (! RESULT 6BE
PRODUC$ 2F XS R1LIZ,N 9 ! MAT]IAL4 ,Z )
SPONTANE;Y1 S ) *.E2 = ? AL PRODUCES !
SAME RESULT Z >T1 & 0! SAME PROCESS4
  ,! FITTE/ MODE1 !N1 ( TR1T;T IS 6SAY1
A MAN HAS S* & S* "PS1 2C ! 3CEP;N (A
MAN 9CLUDES _! PRES;E1 & 2C !Y >E NEC
3DI;NS ( 8 EXI/;E1 OR1 IF WE _C Q SAY ?1
: WD 2 BE/ ( ALL1 !N ! NEXT ?+ 6X1 "NLY1
T X IS EI Q IMPOSSI# = HM 6EXI/ )\T !M1
OR1 AT ANY RATE1 T X IS BETT] = HM T !Y
%D 2 "!2 & _! EXI/;E 9VOLVES ! EXI/;E (
O!R ANTEC$5TS4 ,?US WE %D SAY1 2C MAN IS
AN ANIMAL ) S* & S* "*S1 "!=E IS !
PROCESS ( 8 DEVELOP;T NECESS>ILY S* Z X
IS2 & "!=E IS X A3OMPLI%$ 9 S* & S* AN
ORD]1 ? "P 2+ =M$ F/1 T NEXT1 & S ON 9
SU3ES.N2 & AF A L FA%ION %D WE EXPLA9 !
EVOLU;N ( ALL O!R "WS ( NATURE4
  ,N[ T ) : ! ANCI5T WRIT]S1 :O F/
PHILOSOPHIZ$ AB ,NATURE1 BUSI$ !MVS1 0 !
MAT]IAL PR9CIPLE &! MAT]IAL CAUSE4 ,!Y
9QUIR$ :AT ? IS1 & :AT XS "*2 H[ !
UNIV]SE IS G5]AT$ \ ( X1 & 0:AT MOTOR
9FLU;E1 :E!R1 = 9/.E1 0ANTAGONISM OR
FR%IP1 :E!R 09TELLIG;E OR SPONTANE\S
AC;N1 ! SUB/RATUM ( MATT] 2+ ASSUM$ 6H
C]TA9 9SEP>A# PROP]TIES2 FIRE1 = 9/.E1
6H A HOT NATURE1 E>? A COLD "O2 ! =M]
6BE LI<T1 ! LATT] H1VY4 ,= EV5 ! G5ESIS
(! UNIV]SE IS ?US EXPLA9$ 0!M4 ,AF A L
FA%ION D !Y D1L AL )! DEVELOP;T ( PLANTS
&( ANIMALS4 ,!Y SAY1 = 9/.E1 T ! WAT]
3TA9$ 9 ! BODY CAUSES 0XS CURR5TS ! =M,N
(! /OMA* &! O!R RECEPTACLES ( FOOD OR (
EXCRE;N2 & T ! BR1? 0XS PASSAGE BR1KS
OP5 ! \TLETS (! NO/RILS2 AIR & WAT] 2+ !
MAT]IALS ( : BODIES >E MADE2 = ALL
REPRES5T NATURE Z -POS$ ( S* OR SIMIL>
SUB/.ES4
  ,B IF M5 & ANIMALS & _! S"EAL "PS >E
NATURAL PH5OM5A1 !N ! NATURAL PHILOSOPH]
M/ TAKE 963SID],N N M]ELY ! ULTIMATE
SUB/.ES ( : !Y >E MADE1 B AL FLE%1 B"O1
BLOOD1 & ALL O!R HOMOG5E\S "PS2 N ONLY
^!1 B AL ! HET]OG5E\S "PS1 S* Z FACE1
H&1 FOOT2 & M/ EXAM9E H[ EA* ( ^! -ES
6BE :AT X IS1 & 9 VIRTUE ( :AT =CE4 ,=
6SAY :AT >E ! ULTIMATE SUB/.ES \ ( : AN
ANIMAL IS =M$1 6/ATE1 = 9/.E1 T X IS
MADE ( FIRE OR E>?1 IS NO M SU6ICI5T ?AN
WD 2 A SIMIL> A3.T 9 ! CASE (A C\* OR !
L4 ,= WE %D N 2 3T5T ) SAY+ T ! C\* 0
MADE ( BRONZE OR WOOD OR :AT"E X MI<T
BE1 B %D TRY 6DESCRIBE XS DESIGN OR MODE
( -POSI;N 9 PREF];E 6! MAT]IAL2 OR1 IF
WE DID D1L )! MAT]IAL1 X WD AT ANY RATE
2 )! 3CRE;N ( MAT]IAL & =M4 ,=A C\* IS
S* & S* A =M EMBODI$ 9 ? OR T MATT]1 OR
S* & S* A MATT] ) ? OR T =M2 S T XS %APE
& /RUCTURE M/ 2 9CLUD$ 9 \R DESCRIP;N4
,=! =MAL NATURE IS ( GRT] IMPORT.E ?AN !
MAT]IAL NATURE4
  ,DOES1 !N1 3FIGUR,N & COL\R 3/ITUTE !
ESS;E (! V>I\S ANIMALS &( _! S"EAL "PS8
,= IF S1 :AT ,DEMOCRITUS SAYS W 2
/RICTLY CORRECT4 ,= S* APPE>S 6H BE5 8
NO;N4 ,AT ANY RATE HE SAYS T X IS EVID5T
6E "O :AT =M X IS T MAKES ! MAN1 SEE+ T
HE IS RECOGNIZA# 0HIS %APE & COL\R4 ,&
YET A D1D BODY HAS EXACTLY ! SAME
3FIGUR,N Z A LIV+ "O2 B = ALL T IS N A
MAN4 ,S AL NO H& ( BRONZE OR WOOD OR
3/ITUT$ 9 ANY B ! APPROPRIATE WAY C
POSSIBLY 2 A H& 9 M ?AN "N4 ,= L A
PHYSICIAN 9 A PA9T+1 OR L A FLUTE 9 A
SCULPTURE1 9 SPITE ( XS "N X W 2 UNA# 6D
! (FICE : T "N IMPLIES4 ,PRECISELY 9 !
SAME WAY NO "P (A D1D BODY1 S* ,I M1N Z
XS EYE OR XS H&1 IS RE,Y AN EYE OR A H&4
,6SAY1 !N1 T %APE & COL\R 3/ITUTE !
ANIMAL IS AN 9ADEQUATE /ATE;T1 & IS M* !
SAME Z IF A WOODC>V] 7 69SI/ T ! H& HE
_H CUT \ 0 RE,Y A H&4 ,YET !
PHYSIOLOGI/S1 :5 !Y GIVE AN A3.T (!
DEVELOP;T & CAUSES (! ANIMAL =M1 SP1K V
M* L S* A CRAFTSMAN4 ,:AT1 H["E1 ,I WD
ASK1 >E ! =CES 0: ! H& OR ! BODY 0
FA%ION$ 96XS %APE8 ,! WOODC>V] W P]H
SAY1 0! AXE OR ! AUG]2 ! PHYSIOLOGI/1
0AIR & 0E>?4 ,( ^! TWO ANSW]S !
>TIFIC]'S IS ! BETT]1 B X IS N"E!.S
9SU6ICI5T4 ,= X IS N 5 = HM 6SAY T 0!
/ROKE ( 8 TOOL ? "P 0 =M$ 96A 3CAV;Y1 T
96A FLAT SURFACE2 B HE M/ /ATE ! R1SONS
:Y HE /RUCK 8 BL[ 9 S* A WAY Z 6E6ECT ?1
& :AT 8 F9AL OBJECT WAS2 "NLY1 T ! PIECE
( WOOD %D DEVELOP EV5TU,Y 96? OR T %APE4
,X IS PLA91 !N1 T ! T1*+ (! OLD
PHYSIOLOGI/S IS 9ADEQUATE1 & T ! TRUE
ME?OD IS 6/ATE :AT ! DEF9ITIVE "*S >E T
4T+UI% ! ANIMAL Z A :OLE2 6EXPLA9 :AT X
IS BO? 9 SUB/.E & 9 =M1 & 6D1L AF ! SAME
FA%ION ) XS S"EAL ORGANS2 9 FACT1
6PROCE$ 9 EXACTLY ! SAME WAY Z WE %D D1
7 WE GIV+ A -PLETE DESCRIP;N (A C\*4
  ,IF N[ ? "S?+ T 3/ITUTES ! =M (! LIV+
2+ 2 ! S\L1 OR "P (! S\L1 OR "S?+ T )\T
! S\L _C EXI/2 Z WD SEEM 6BE ! CASE1
SEE+ AT ANY RATE T :5 ! S\L DE"PS1 :AT
IS LEFT IS NO L;G] A LIV+ ANIMAL1 & T
N"O (! "PS REMA9 :AT !Y 7 2F1 EXCEPT+ 9
M]E 3FIGUR,N1 L ! ANIMALS T 9 ! FA# >E
TURN$ 96/"O2 IF1 ,I SAY1 ? 2 S1 !N X W
-E )9 ! PROV9CE (! NATURAL PHILOSOPH]
69=M HMF 3C]N+ ! S\L1 & 6TR1T ( X1 EI 9
XS 5TIRETY1 OR1 AT ANY RATE1 ( T "P ( X
: 3/ITUTES ! ESS5TIAL "* ( AN ANIMAL2 &
X W 2 8 DUTY 6SAY :AT ? S\L OR ? "P (A
S\L IS2 & 64CUSS ! ATTRIBUTES T ATTA* 6?
ESS5TIAL "*1 ESPECI,Y Z NATURE IS SPOK5
( 9 TWO S5SES1 &! NATURE (A ?+ IS EI XS
MATT] OR XS ESS;E2 NATURE Z ESS;E 9CLUD+
BO? ! MOTOR CAUSE &! F9AL CAUSE4 ,N[ X
IS 9 ! LATT] ( ^! TWO S5SES T EI ! :OLE
S\L OR "S "P ( X 3/ITUTES ! NATURE ( AN
ANIMAL2 & 9ASM* Z X IS ! PRES;E (! S\L T
5A#S MATT] 63/ITUTE ! ANIMAL NATURE1 M*
M ?AN X IS ! PRES;E ( MATT] : S 5A#S !
S\L1 ! 9QUIR] 96NATURE IS B.D ON E GR.D
6TR1T (! S\L R ?AN (! MATT]4 ,= ?\< !
WOOD ( : !Y >E MADE 3/ITUTES ! C\* &!
TRIPOD1 X ONLY DOES S 2C X IS CAPA# (
RCVG S* & S* A =M4
  ,:AT HAS BE5 SD SU7E/S ! "Q1 :E!R X IS
! :OLE S\L OR ONLY "S "P ( X1 ! 3SID],N
( : -ES )9 ! PROV9CE ( NATURAL SCI;E4
,N[ IF X 2 (! :OLE S\L T ? %D TR1T1 !N
"! IS NO PLACE = ANY O!R PHILOSOPHY 2S
X4 ,= Z X 2L;GS 9 ALL CASES 6"O &! SAME
SCI;E 6D1L ) CORRELAT$ SUBJECTS-"O &!
SAME SCI;E1 = 9/.E1 D1LS ) S5S,N &)!
OBJECTS ( S5SE-& Z "!=E ! 9TELLIG5T S\L
&! OBJECTS ( 9TELLECT1 2+ CORRELAT$1 M/
2L;G 6"O &! SAME SCI;E1 X FOLL[S T
NATURAL SCI;E W H 69CLUDE ! :OLE UNIV]SE
9 XS PROV9CE4 ,B P]H X IS N ! :OLE S\L1
NOR ALL XS "PS COLLECTIVELY1 T 3/ITUTES
! S\RCE ( MO;N2 B "! MAY 2 "O "P1
ID5TICAL ) T 9 PLANTS1 : IS ! S\RCE (
GR[?1 ANO!R1 "NLY ! S5SORY "P1 : IS !
S\RCE ( *ANGE ( QUAL;Y1 :ILE / ANO!R1 &
? N ! 9TELLECTUAL "P1 IS ! S\RCE (
LOCOMO;N4 ,I SAY N ! 9TELLECTUAL "P2 =
O!R ANIMALS ?AN MAN H ! P[] ( LOCOMO;N1
B 9 N"O B HM IS "! 9TELLECT4 ,?US !N X
IS PLA9 T X IS N (! :OLE S\L T WE H
6TR1T4 ,= X IS N ! :OLE S\L T 3/ITUTES !
ANIMAL NATURE1 B ONLY "S "P OR "PS ( X4
,MOREOV]1 X IS IMPOSSI# T ANY AB/RAC;N C
=M A SUBJECT ( NATURAL SCI;E1 SEE+ T
"EY?+ T ,NATURE MAKES IS M1NS 6AN 5D4 ,=
J Z HUMAN CRE,NS >E ! PRODUCTS ( >T1 S
LIV+ OBJECTS >E MANIFE/ 9 ! PRODUCTS (
AN ANALOG\S CAUSE OR PR9CIPLE1 N EXT]NAL
B 9T]NAL1 DERIV$ L ! HOT &! COLD F !
5VIRON+ UNIV]SE4 ,& T ! H1V51 IF X _H AN
ORIG91 0 EVOLV$ & IS MA9TA9$ 0S* A
CAUSE1 "! IS "!=E EV5 M R1SON 62LIEVE1
?AN T MORTAL ANIMALS S ORIG9AT$4 ,= ORD]
& DEF9ITE;S >E M* M PLA9LY MANIFE/ 9 !
CELE/IAL BODIES ?AN 9 \R [N FRAME2 :ILE
*ANGE & *.E >E "*I/IC (! P]I%A# ?+S (
E>?4 ,YET "! >E "S :O1 :ILE !Y ALL[ T E
ANIMAL EXI/S & 0 G5]AT$ 0NATURE1 N"E!.S
HOLD T ! H1V5 0 3/RUCT$ 6BE :AT X IS
0*.E & SPONTANE;Y2 ! H1V51 9 : N !
FA9TE/ SIGN ( HAPHAZ>D OR ( 4ORD] IS
4C]NI#6 ,AG1 :5"E "! IS PLA9LY "S F9AL
5D1 6: A MO;N T5DS %D NO?+ /& 9 ! WAY1
WE ALW SAY T S* F9AL 5D IS ! AIM OR
PURPOSE (! MO;N2 & F ? X IS EVID5T T "!
M/ 2 A "S?+ OR O!R RE,Y EXI/+1
CORRESPOND+ 6:AT WE CALL 0! "N (
,NATURE4 ,=A GIV5 G]M DOES N GIVE RISE
6ANY *.E LIV+ 2+1 NOR SPR+ F ANY *.E "O2
B EA* G]M SPR+S F A DEF9ITE P>5T & GIVES
RISE 6A DEF9ITE PROG5Y4 ,& ?US X IS !
G]M T IS ! RUL+ 9FLU;E & FABRICATOR (!
(FSPR+4 ,= ^! X IS 0NATURE1 ! (FSPR+ 2+
AT ANY RATE T : 9 NATURE W SPR+ F X4 ,AT
! SAME "T ! (FSPR+ IS ANT]IOR 6! G]M2 =
G]M & P]FECT$ PROG5Y >E RELAT$ Z !
DEVELOP;TAL PROCESS &! RESULT4 ,ANT]IOR1
H["E1 6BO? G]M & PRODUCT IS ! ORGANISM F
: ! G]M 0 DERIV$4 ,= E G]M IMPLIES TWO
ORGANISMS1 ! P>5T &! PROG5Y4 ,= G]M OR
SE$ IS BO? ! SE$ (! ORGANISM F : X CAME1
(! HORSE1 = 9/.E1 F : X 0 DERIV$1 &! SE$
(! ORGANISM T W EV5TU,Y >ISE F X1 (!
MULE1 = EXAMPLE1 : IS DEVELOP$ F ! SE$ (
! HORSE4 ,! SAME SE$ !N IS ! SE$ BO? (!
HORSE &(! MULE1 ?\< 9 DI6]5T WAYS Z "H
SET =?4 ,MOREOV]1 ! SE$ IS POT5TI,Y T :
W SPR+ F X1 &! REL,N ( POT5TIAL;Y
6ACTUAL;Y WE "K4
  ,"! >E !N TWO CAUSES1 "NLY1 NECESS;Y &
! F9AL 5D4 ,= _M ?+S >E PRODUC$1 SIMPLY
Z ! RESULTS ( NECESS;Y4 ,X MAY1 H["E1 2
ASK$1 ( :AT MODE ( NECESS;Y >E WE SP1K+
:5 WE SAY ?4 ,= X C 2 ( NEI ( ^? TWO
MODES : >E SET =? 9 ! PHILOSOPHICAL
TR1TISES4 ,"! IS1 H["E1 ! ?IRD MODE1 9
S* ?+S AT ANY RATE Z >E G5]AT$4 ,= 9/.E1
WE SAY T FOOD IS NEC2 2C AN ANIMAL _C
POSSIBLY D )\T X4 ,? ?IRD MODE IS :AT
MAY 2 CALL$ HYPO!TICAL NECESS;Y4 ,"H IS
ANO!R EXAMPLE ( X4 ,IF A PIECE ( WOOD IS
6BE SPLIT ) AN AXE1 ! AXE M/ ( NECESS;Y
2 H>D2 &1 IF H>D1 M/ ( NECESS;Y 2 MADE (
BRONZE OR IRON4 ,N[ EXACTLY 9 ! SAME WAY
! BODY1 : L ! AXE IS AN 9/RU;T-= BO? !
BODY Z A :OLE & XS S"EAL "PS 9DIVIDU,Y H
DEF9ITE OP],NS = : !Y >E MADE-J 9 ! SAME
WAY1 ,I SAY1 ! BODY1 IF X IS 6D XS "W1
M/ ( NECESS;Y 2 ( S* & S* A "*1 & MADE (
S* & S* MAT]IALS4
  ,X IS PLA9 !N T "! >E TWO MODES (
CAUS,N1 & T BO? ( ^! M/1 S F> Z POSSI#1
2 TAK5 96A3.T 9 EXPLA9+ ! "WS ( NATURE1
OR T AT ANY RATE AN ATTEMPT M/ 2 MADE
69CLUDE !M BO?2 & T ^? :O FAIL 9 ? TELL
U 9 R1L;Y NO?+ AB NATURE4 ,= PRIM>Y
CAUSE 3/ITUTES ! NATURE ( AN ANIMAL M* M
?AN DOES XS MATT]4 ,"! >E 9DE$ PASSAGES
9 : EV5 ,EMP$OCLES HITS ^U ?1 & FOLL[+ !
GUID.E ( FACT1 F9DS HMF 3/RA9$ 6SP1K (!
RATIO 7OLUGOS7 Z 3/ITUT+ ! ESS;E & R1L
NATURE ( ?+S4 ,S*1 = 9/.E1 IS ! CASE :5
HE EXPLA9S :AT IS A B"O4 ,= HE DOES N
M]ELY DESCRIBE XS MAT]IAL1 & SAY X IS ?
"O ELE;T1 OR ^? TWO OR ?REE ELE;TS1 OR A
-P.D ( ALL ! ELE;TS1 B /ATES ! RATIO
7OLUGOS7 ( _! -B9,N4 ,Z )A B"O1 S
MANIFE/LY IS X )! FLE% & ALL O!R SIMIL>
"PS4
  ,! R1SON :Y \R PR$ECESSORS FAIL$ 9
HITT+ ^U ? ME?OD ( TR1T;T WAS1 T !Y 7 N
9 POSSES.N (! NO;N ( ESS;E1 NOR ( ANY
DEF9I;N ( SUB/.E4 ,! F/ :O CAME NE> X 0
,DEMOCRITUS1 & HE 0 F> F ADOPT+ X Z A
NEC ME?OD 9 NATURAL SCI;E1 B 0 M]ELY
BR"\ 6X1 SPITE ( HMF1 03/RA9T ( FACTS4
,9 ! "T ( ,SOCRATES A NE>] APPROA* 0
MADE 6! ME?OD4 ,B AT ? P]IOD M5 GAVE UP
9QUIR+ 96! "WS ( NATURE1 & PHILOSOPH]S
DIV]T$ _! ATT5;N 6POLITICAL SCI;E & 6!
VIRTUES : B5EFIT MANK9D4
  ,(! ME?OD XF ! FOLL[+ IS AN EXAMPLE4
,9 D1L+ ) RESPIR,N WE M/ %[ T X TAKES
PLACE = S* OR S* A F9AL OBJECT2 & WE M/
AL %[ T ? & T "P (! PROCESS IS
NECESSITAT$ 0? & T O!R /AGE ( X4
,0NECESS;Y WE % "S"TS M1N HYPO!TICAL
NECESS;Y1 ! NECESS;Y1 T IS1 T !
REQUISITE ANTEC$ANTS % 2 "!1 IF ! F9AL
5D IS 6BE R1*$2 & "S"TS ABSOLUTE
NECESS;Y1 S* NECESS;Y Z T : 3NECTS
SUB/.ES & _! 9H]5T PROP]TIES & "*S4 ,=!
ALT]NATE 4*>GE & RE-5TR.E ( H1T &! 9FL[
( AIR >E NEC IF WE >E 6LIVE4 ,"H WE H AT
ONCE A NECESS;Y 9 ! =M] (! TWO S5SES4 ,B
! ALT]N,N ( H1T & REFRIG],N PRODUCES (
NECESS;Y AN ALT]NATE ADMIS.N & 4*>GE (!
\T] AIR1 & ? IS A NECESS;Y (! SECOND
K9D4
  ,9 ! =EGO+ WE H AN EXAMPLE (! ME?OD :
WE M/ ADOPT1 & AL AN EXAMPLE (! K9D (
PH5OM5A1 ! CAUSES ( : WE H 69VE/IGATE4

                   #B

  ,"S WRIT]S PROPOSE 6R1* ! DEF9I;NS (!
ULTIMATE =MS ( ANIMAL LIFE 0BI"PITE
DIVI.N4 ,B ? ME?OD IS (T5 DI6ICULT1 &
(T5 IMPRACTICA#4
  ,"S"TS ! F9AL DI6]5TIA (! SUBDIVI.N IS
SU6ICI5T 0XF1 &! ANTEC$5T DI6]5TIAE >E
M]E SURPLUSAGE4 ,?US 9 ! S]IES ,FOOT$1
,TWO-FOOT$1 ,CLEFT-FOOT$1 ! LA/ T]M IS
ALL-EXPRESSIVE 0XF1 & 6APP5D ! HI<] T]MS
IS ONLY AN IDLE IT],N4 ,AG X IS N
P]MISSI# 6BR1K UP A NATURAL GR\P1 ,BIRDS
= 9/.E1 0PUTT+ XS MEMB]S "U DI6]5T
BIFURC,NS1 Z IS D"O 9 ! PUBLI%$
DI*OTOMIES1 ": "S BIRDS >E RANK$ )
ANIMALS (! WAT]1 & O!RS PLAC$ 9 A DI6]5T
CLASS4 ,! GR\P ,BIRDS &! GR\P ,FI%ES
HAPP5 6BE "ND1 :ILE O!R NATURAL GR\PS H
NO POPUL> "NS2 = 9/.E1 ! GR\PS T WE MAY
CALL ,SANGU9E\S & ,BLOOD.S >E N "KN
POPUL>LY 0ANY DESIGN,NS4 ,IF S* NATURAL
GR\PS >E N 6BE BROK5 UP1 ! ME?OD (
,DI*OTOMY _C 2 EMPLOY$1 = X NECESS>ILY
9VOLVES S* BR1K+ UP & 4LOC,N4 ,! GR\P (!
,_M-FOOT$1 = 9/.E1 WD1 "U ? ME?OD1 H 6BE
4MEMB]$1 & "S ( XS K9DS 4TRIBUT$ AM;G L&
ANIMALS1 O!RS AM;G WAT] ANIMALS4

                   #C

  ,AG1 PRIVATIVE T]MS 9EVITABLY =M "O
BRAN* ( DI*OTOM\S DIVI.N1 Z WE SEE 9 !
PROPOS$ DI*OTOMIES4 ,B PRIVATIVE T]MS 9
_! "* ( PRIVATIVES ADMIT ( NO SUBDIVI.N4
,= "! C 2 NO SPECIFIC =MS (A NEG,N1 (
,F1!R.S = 9/.E OR ( ,FOOT.S1 Z "! >E (
,F1!R$ &( ,FOOT$4 ,YET A G5]IC DI6]5TIA
M/ 2 SUBDIVISI#2 = O!RWISE :AT IS "! T
MAKES X G5]IC R ?AN SPECIFIC8 ,"! >E 6BE
F.D G5]IC1 T IS SPECIFIC,Y SUBDIVISI#1
DI6]5TIAE2 ,F1!R$ = 9/.E & ,FOOT$4 ,=
F1!RS >E DIVISI# 96,B>B$ & ,UNB>B$1 &
FEET 96,_MCLEFT1 & ,TWOCLEFT1 L ^? (
ANIMALS ) BIFID HO(S1 & ,UNCLEFT OR
,UNDIVID$1 L ^? ( ANIMALS ) SOLID HO(S4
,N[ EV5 ) DI6]5TIAE CAPA# ( ? SPECIFIC
SUBDIVI.N X IS DI6ICULT 5 S 6MAKE !
CLASSIFIC,N1 Z T EA* ANIMAL % 2 -PREH5D$
9 "S "O SUBDIVI.N & 9 N M ?AN "O2 B F> M
DI6ICULT1 NAY IMPOSSI#1 IS X 6D ?1 IF WE
/>T )A DI*OTOMY 96TWO 3TRADICTORIES4
7,SUPPOSE = 9/.E WE />T )! TWO
3TRADICTORIES1 ,F1!R$ & ,UNF1!R$2 WE %
F9D T ! ANT1 ! GL[-WORM1 & "S O!R
ANIMALS FALL "U BO? DIVI.NS47 ,= EA*
DI6]5TIA M/ 2 PRES5T$ 0"S SPECIES4 ,"!
M/ 2 "S SPECIES1 "!=E1 "U ! PRIVATIVE
H1D+4 ,N[ SPECIFIC,Y 4T9CT ANIMALS _C
PRES5T 9 _! ESS;E A -MON UNDI6]5TIAT$
ELE;T1 B ANY APP>5TLY -MON ELE;T M/ RE,Y
2 DI6]5TIAT$4 7,BIRD & ,MAN = 9/.E >E
BO? ,TWO-FOOT$1 B _! TWO-FOOT$;S IS
DIV]SE & DI6]5TIAT$4 ,S ANY TWO
SANGU9E\S GR\PS M/ H "S DI6];E 9 _!
BLOOD1 IF _! BLOOD IS "P ( _! ESS;E47 ,F
? X FOLL[S T A PRIVATIVE T]M1 2+
9SUSCEPTI# ( DI6]5TI,N1 _C 2 A G5]IC
DI6]5TIA2 =1 IF X W]E1 "! WD 2 A -MON
UNDI6]5TIAT$ ELE;T 9 TWO DI6]5T GR\PS4
  ,AG1 IF ! SPECIES >E ULTIMATE 9DIVISI#
GR\PS1 T IS1 >E GR\PS ) 9DIVISI#
DI6]5TIAE1 & IF NO DI6]5TIA 2 -MON
6S"EAL GR\PS1 ! NUMB] ( DI6]5TIAE M/ 2
EQUAL 6! NUMB] ( SPECIES4 ,IF A DI6]5TIA
?\< N DIVISI# CD YET 2 -MON 6S"EAL
GR\PS1 !N X IS PLA9 T 9 VIRTUE ( T -MON
DI6]5TIA SPECIFIC,Y 4T9CT ANIMALS WD
FALL 96! SAME DIVI.N4 ,X IS NEC !N1 IF !
DI6]5TIAE1 "U : >E RANG$ ALL ! ULTIMATE
& 9DIVISI# GR\PS1 >E SPECIFIC "*S1 T N"O
( !M % 2 -MON2 = O!RWISE1 Z ALR SD1
SPECIFIC,Y 4T9CT ANIMALS W -E 96"O &!
SAME DIVI.N4 ,B ? WD VIOLATE "O (!
REQUISITE 3DI;NS1 : >E Z FOLL[S4 ,NO
ULTIMATE GR\P M/ 2 9CLUD$ 9 M ?AN A S+LE
DIVI.N2 DI6]5T GR\PS M/ N 2 9CLUD$ 9 !
SAME DIVI.N2 & E GR\P M/ 2 F.D 9 "S
DIVI.N4 ,X IS PLA9 !N T WE _C GET AT !
ULTIMATE SPECIFIC =MS (! ANIMAL1 OR ANY
O!R1 K+DOM 0BIFURCATE DIVI.N4 ,IF WE CD1
! NUMB] ( ULTIMATE DI6]5TIAE WD EQUAL !
NUMB] ( ULTIMATE ANIMAL =MS4 ,= ASSUME
AN ORD] ( 2+S ^: PRIME DI6]5TIAE >E
,:ITE & ,BLACK4 ,EA* ( ^! BRAN*ES W
BIFURCATE1 & _! BRAN*ES AG1 & S ON TILL
WE R1* ! ULTIMATE DI6]5TIAE1 ^: NUMB] W
2 F\R OR "S O!R P[] ( TWO1 & W AL 2 !
NUMB] (! ULTIMATE SPECIES -PREH5D$ 9 !
ORD]4
  7,A SPECIES IS 3/ITUT$ 0! -B9,N
DI6]5TIA & MATT]4 ,= NO "P ( AN ANIMAL
IS PURELY MAT]IAL OR PURELY IMMAT]IAL2
NOR C A BODY1 9DEP5D5TLY ( XS 3DI;N1
3/ITUTE AN ANIMAL OR ANY ( XS "PS1 Z HAS
REP1T$LY BE5 OBS]V$47
  ,FUR!R1 ! DI6]5TIAE M/ 2 ELE;TS (!
ESS;E1 & N M]ELY ESS5TIAL ATTRIBUTES4
,?US IF ,FIGURE IS ! T]M 6BE DIVID$1 X
M/ N 2 DIVID$ 96FIGURES ^: ANGLES >E
EQUAL 6TWO "R ANGLES1 & FIGURES ^:
ANGLES >E TGR GRT] ?AN TWO "R ANGLES4 ,=
X IS ONLY AN ATTRIBUTE (A TRIANGLE & N
"P ( XS ESS;E T XS ANGLES >E EQUAL 6TWO
"R ANGLES4
  ,AG1 ! BIFURC,NS M/ 2 OPPOSITES1 L
,:ITE & ,BLACK1 ,/RAI<T & ,B5T2 & IF WE
"*IZE "O BRAN* 0EI T]M1 WE M/ "*IZE !
O!R 0XS OPPOSITE1 & N1 = EXAMPLE1 "*IZE
"O BRAN* 0A COL\R1 ! O!R 0A MODE (
PROGRES.N1 SWIMM+ = 9/.E4
  ,FUR!RMORE1 LIV+ 2+S _C 2 DIVID$ 0!
FUNC;NS -MON 6BODY & S\L1 0,FLY+1 =
9/.E1 & ,WALK+1 Z WE SEE !M DIVID$ 9 !
DI*OTOMIES ALR REF]R$ TO4 ,= "S GR\PS1
,ANTS = 9/.E1 FALL "U BO? DIVI.NS1 "S
ANTS FLY+ :ILE O!RS D N4 ,SIMIL>LY Z
REG>DS ! DIVI.N 96,WILD & ,TAME2 = X AL
WD 9VOLVE ! 4RUP;N (A SPECIES 96DI6]5T
GR\PS4 ,= 9 ALM ALL SPECIES 9 : "S
MEMB]S >E TAME1 "! >E O!R MEMB]S T >E
WILD4 ,S*1 = EXAMPLE1 IS ! CASE ) ,M51
,HORSES1 ,OX51 ,DOGS 9 ,9DIA1 ,PIGS1
,GOATS1 ,%EEP2 GR\PS :1 IF D\#1 "\ 6H
:AT !Y H N1 "NLY1 DI6]5T APPELL,NS2 & :1
IF S+LE1 PROVE T ,WILD;S & ,TAME;S D N
AM.T 6SPECIFIC DI6];ES4 ,& :AT"E S+LE
ELE;T WE TAKE Z A BASIS ( DIVI.N ! SAME
DI6ICULTY W O3UR4
  ,! ME?OD !N T WE M/ ADOPT IS 6ATTEMPT
6RECOGNIZE ! NATURAL GR\PS1 FOLL[+ !
9DIC,NS AF=D$ 0! 9/9CTS ( MANK9D1 : L$
!M = 9/.E 6=M ! CLASS ( ,BIRDS &! CLASS
( ,FI%ES1 EA* ( : GR\PS -B9ES A
MULTITUDE ( DI6]5TIAE1 & IS N DEF9$ 0A
S+LE "O Z 9 DI*OTOMY4 ,! ME?OD (
DI*OTOMY IS EI IMPOSSI# 7= X WD PUT A
S+LE GR\P "U DI6]5T DIVI.NS OR 3TR>Y
GR\PS "U ! SAME DIVI.N71 OR X ONLY
FURNI%ES A S+LE ULTIMATE DI6]5TIA = EA*
SPECIES1 : EI AL"O OR ) XS S]IES (
ANTEC$5TS HAS 63/ITUTE ! ULTIMATE
SPECIES4
  ,IF1 AG1 A NEW DI6]5TIAL "* 2 9TRODUC$
AT ANY /AGE 96! DIVI.N1 ! NEC RESULT IS
T ! 3T9U;Y (! DIVI.N 2COMES M]ELY A UN;Y
& 3T9U;Y ( A7LOM],N1 L ! UN;Y & 3T9U;Y (
A S]IES ( S5T;ES C\PL$ TGR 03JUNCTIVE
"PICLES4 ,= 9/.E1 SUPPOSE WE H !
BIFURC,N ,F1!R$ & ,F1!R.S1 & !N DIVIDE
,F1!R$ 96,WILD & ,TAME1 OR 96,:ITE &
,BLACK4 ,TAME & ,:ITE >E N A DI6]5TI,N (
,F1!R$1 B >E ! -M;E;T ( AN 9DEP5D5T
BIFURC,N1 & >E =EIGN 6! S]IES AT ! 5D (
: !Y >E 9TRODUC$4
  ,Z WE SD !N1 WE M/ DEF9E AT ! \TSET
0MULTIPLIC;Y ( DI6]5TIAE4 ,IF WE D S1
PRIVATIVE T]MS W 2 AVAILA#1 : >E
UNAVAILA# 6! DI*OTOMI/4
  ,! IMPOSSIBIL;Y ( R1*+ ! DEF9I;N ( ANY
(! ULTIMATE =MS 0DI*OTOMY (! L>G] GR\P1
Z "S PROPOSE1 IS MANIFE/ AL F ! FOLL[+
3SID],NS4 ,X IS IMPOSSI# T A S+LE
DI6]5TIA1 EI 0XF OR ) XS ANTEC$5TS1 %
EXPRESS ! :OLE ESS;E (A SPECIES4 7,IN
SAY+ A S+LE DI6]5TIA 0XF ,I M1N S* AN
ISOLAT$ DI6]5TIA Z ,CLEFT-FOOT$2 9 SAY+
A S+LE DI6]5TIA ) ANTEC$5T ,I M1N1 6GIVE
AN 9/.E1 ,_MCLEFT-FOOT$ PREC$$ 0,CLEFT-
FOOT$4 ,! V 3T9U;Y (A S]IES ( SU3ESSIVE
DI6]5TIAE 9 A DIVI.N IS 9T5D$ 6%[ T X IS
_! -B9,N T EXPRESSES ! "* (! RESULT+
UNIT1 OR ULTIMATE GR\P4 ,B "O IS MISL$
0! USAGES ( LANGUAGE 96IMAG9+ T X IS
M]ELY ! F9AL T]M (! S]IES1 ,_MCLEFT-
FOOT$ = 9/.E1 T 3/ITUTES ! :OLE
DI6]5TIA1 & T ! ANTEC$5T T]MS1 ,FOOT$1
,CLEFT-FOOT$1 >E SUP]FLU\S4 ,N[ X IS
EVID5T T S* A S]IES _C 3SI/ ( _M T]MS4
,= IF "O DIVIDES & SUBDIVIDES1 "O SOON
R1*ES ! F9AL DI6]5TIAL T]M1 B = ALL T W
N H GOT 6! ULTIMATE DIVI.N1 T IS1 6!
SPECIES47 ,NO S+LE DI6]5TIA1 ,I REP1T1
EI 0XF OR ) XS ANTEC$5TS1 C POSSIBLY
EXPRESS ! ESS;E (A SPECIES4 ,SUPPOSE1 =
EXAMPLE1 ,MAN 6BE ! ANIMAL 6BE DEF9$2 !
S+LE DI6]5TIA W 2 ,CLEFT-FOOT$1 EI 0XF
OR ) XS ANTEC$5TS1 ,FOOT$ & ,TWO-FOOT$4
,N[ IF MAN 0 NO?+ M ?AN A ,CLEFT-FOOT$
ANIMAL1 ? S+LE DI6]5TIA WD DULY REPRES5T
8 ESS;E4 ,B SEE+ T ? IS N ! CASE1 M
DI6]5TIAE ?AN ? "O W NECESS>ILY 2
REQUIR$ 6DEF9E HM2 & ^! _C -E "U "O
DIVI.N2 = EA* S+LE BRAN* (A DI*OTOMY 5DS
9 A S+LE DI6]5TIA1 & _C POSSIBLY 9CLUDE
S"EAL DI6]5TIAE 2L;G+ 6"O &! SAME
ANIMAL4
  ,X IS IMPOSSI# !N 6R1* ANY (! ULTIMATE
ANIMAL =MS 0DI*OTOM\S DIVI.N4

                   #D

  ,X DES]VES 9QUIRY :Y A S+LE "N DENOT+
A HI<] GR\P 0 N 9V5T$ 0MANK9D1 Z AN
APPELL,N 6-PREH5D ! TWO GR\PS ( ,WAT]
ANIMALS & ,W+$ ANIMALS4 ,= EV5 ^! H
C]TA9 ATTRIBUTES 9 -MON4 ,H["E1 ! PRES5T
NOM5CLATURE IS J4 ,GR\PS T ONLY DI6] 9
DEGREE1 & 9 ! M OR LESS ( AN ID5TICAL
ELE;T T !Y POSSESS1 >E A7REGAT$ "U A
S+LE CLASS2 GR\PS ^: ATTRIBUTES >E N
ID5TICAL B ANALOG\S >E SEP>AT$4 ,= 9/.E1
BIRD DI6]S F BIRD 0GRAD,N1 OR 0EXCESS &
DEFECT2 "S BIRDS H L;G F1!RS1 O!RS %ORT
"OS1 B ALL >E F1!R$4 ,BIRD & ,FI% >E M
REMOTE & ONLY AGREE 9 HAV+ ANALOG\S
ORGANS2 = :AT 9 ! BIRD IS F1!R1 9 ! FI%
IS SCALE4 ,S* ANALOGIES C SC>CELY1 H["E1
S]VE UNIV]S,Y Z 9DIC,NS =! =M,N ( GR\PS1
= ALM ALL ANIMALS PRES5T ANALOGIES 9 _!
CORRESPOND+ "PS4
  ,! 9DIVIDUALS -PRIS$ )9 A SPECIES1 S*
Z ,SOCRATES & ,CORISCUS1 >E ! R1L
EXI/;ES2 B 9ASM* Z ^! 9DIVIDUALS POSSESS
"O -MON SPECIFIC =M1 X W SU6ICE 6/ATE !
UNIV]SAL ATTRIBUTES (! SPECIES1 T IS1 !
ATTRIBUTES -MON 6ALL XS 9DIVIDUALS1 ONCE
= ALL1 Z O!RWISE "! W 2 5D.S REIT],N1 Z
HAS ALR BE5 PO9T$ \4
  ,B Z REG>DS ! L>G] GR\PS-S* Z ,BIRDS-:
-PREH5D _M SPECIES1 "! MAY 2 A "Q4 ,= ON
! "O H& X MAY 2 URG$ T Z ! ULTIMATE
SPECIES REPRES5T ! R1L EXI/;ES1 X W 2
WELL1 IF PRACTICA#1 6EXAM9E ^! ULTIMATE
SPECIES SEP>ATELY1 J Z WE EXAM9E !
SPECIES ,MAN SEP>ATELY2 6EXAM9E1 T IS1 N
! :OLE CLASS ,BIRDS COLLECTIVELY1 B !
,O/RI*1 ! ,CRANE1 &! O!R 9DIVISI# GR\PS
OR SPECIES 2L;G+ 6! CLASS4
  ,ON ! O!R H&1 H["E1 ? C\RSE WD 9VOLVE
REP1T$ M5;N (! SAME ATTRIBUTE1 Z ! SAME
ATTRIBUTE IS -MON 6_M SPECIES1 & S F> WD
2 "S:AT IRR,NAL & T$I\S4 ,P]H1 !N1 X W 2
BE/ 6TR1T G5]IC,Y ! UNIV]SAL ATTRIBUTES
(! GR\PS T H A -MON NATURE & 3TA9
CLOSELY ALLI$ SUBORD9ATE =MS1 :E!R !Y >E
GR\PS RECOGNIZ$ 0A TRUE 9/9CT ( MANK9D1
S* Z ,BIRDS & ,FI%ES1 OR GR\PS N
POPUL>LY "KN 0A -MON APPELL,N1 B )AL
-POS$ ( CLOSELY ALLI$ SUBORD9ATE GR\PS2
& ONLY 6D1L 9DIVIDU,Y )! ATTRIBUTES (A
S+LE SPECIES1 :5 S* SPECIES1 MAN1 =
9/.E1 & ANY O!R S*1 IF S* "! BE-/&S A"P
F O!RS1 & DOES N 3/ITUTE ) !M A L>G]
NATURAL GR\P4
  ,X IS G5],Y SIMIL>;Y 9 ! %APE (
"PICUL> ORGANS1 OR (! :OLE BODY1 T HAS
DET]M9$ ! =M,N (! L>G] GR\PS4 ,X IS 9
VIRTUE ( S* A SIMIL>;Y T ,BIRDS1 ,FI%ES1
,CEPHALOPODA1 & ,TE/ACEA H BE5 MADE 6=M
EA* A SEP>ATE CLASS4 ,= )9 ! LIMITS (
EA* S* CLASS1 ! "PS D N DI6] 9 T !Y H NO
NE>] RESEMBL.E ?AN T ( ANALOGY-S* Z
EXI/S 2T ! B"O ( MAN &! SP9E ( FI%-B
DI6] M]ELY 9 RESPECT ( S* CORPOR1L
3DI;NS Z L>GE;S SMALL;S1 S(T;S H>D;S1
SMOO?;S R\<;S1 & O!R SIMIL> OPPOSI;NS1
OR1 9 "O ^W1 9 RESPECT ( DEGREE4
  ,WE H N[ T\*$ ^U ! CANONS = CRITICIZ+
! ME?OD ( NATURAL SCI;E1 & H 3SID]$ :AT
IS ! MO/ SY/EMATIC & EASY C\RSE (
9VE/IG,N2 WE H AL D1LT ) DIVI.N1 &! MODE
( 3DUCT+ X S Z BE/ 6ATTA9 ! 5DS ( SCI;E1
& H %[N :Y DI*OTOMY IS EI IMPRACTICA# OR
9E6ICACI\S = XS PROFESS$ PURPOSES4
  ,HAV+ LAID ? F.D,N1 LET U PASS ON 6\R
NEXT TOPIC4

                   #E

  ,( ?+S 3/ITUT$ 0NATURE "S >E UNG5]AT$1
IMP]I%A#1 & ET]NAL1 :ILE O!RS >E SUBJECT
6G5],N & DECAY4 ,! =M] >E EXCELL5T 2Y
-P>E & DIV9E1 B LESS A3ESSI# 6K4 ,!
EVID;E T MI<T ?R[ LI<T ON !M1 & ON !
PRO#MS : WE L;G 6SOLVE RESPECT+ !M1 IS
FURNI%$ B SCANTILY 0S5S,N2 ":AS RESPECT+
P]I%A# PLANTS & ANIMALS WE H ABUNDANT
9=M,N1 LIV+ Z WE D 9 _! MID/1 & AMPLE
DATA MAY 2 COLLECT$ 3C]N+ ALL _! V>I\S
K9DS1 IF ONLY WE >E WILL+ 6TAKE SU6ICI5T
PA9S4 ,BO? DE"P;TS1 H["E1 H _! SPECIAL
*>M4 ,! SCANTY 3CEP;NS 6: WE C ATTA9 (
CELE/IAL ?+S GIVE U1 F _! EXCELL;E1 M
PL1SURE ?AN ALL \R K (! _W 9 : WE LIVE2
J Z A HALF GLIMPSE ( P]SONS T WE LOVE IS
M DELI<T;L ?AN A LEISURELY VIEW ( O!R
?+S1 :AT"E _! NUMB] & DIM5.NS4 ,ON ! O!R
H&1 9 C]TITUDE & 9 -PLETE;S \R K (
T]RE/RIAL ?+S HAS ! ADVANTAGE4 ,MOREOV]1
_! GRT] NE>;S & A69;Y 6U BAL.ES "S:AT !
L(TI] 9T]E/ (! H1V5LY ?+S T >E ! OBJECTS
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S5SE1 YET EV5 ^!1 04CLOS+ 69TELLECTUAL
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& ORGANS >E ONLY S F> ID5TICAL Z T !Y >E
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3NEXION ) EA* 9DIVIDUAL GR\P WD 9VOLVE1
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SUBORD9ATE FUNC;N1 6: X IS ADAPT$4
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6DESCRIBE ! ATTRIBUTES -MON 6ALL
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0GRAD,N1 OR 6GR\PS L ,MAN N DI6]5TIAT$
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4*>GE ^! FUNC;NS2 & SIMIL>LY1 IF "O
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9VOLVES T ( O!R ?+S Z _! NEC 3SEQU5TS4
  ,9/.ES ( :AT ,I M1N 0FUNC;NS & A6EC;NS
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,SLEEP1 ,LOCOMO;N1 & O!R SIMIL> VITAL
AC;NS4 ,9/.ES ( :AT ,I M1N 0"PS >E
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MADE4 ,S M* =! ME?OD 6BE PURSU$4 ,LET U
N[ TRY 6SET =? ! CAUSES ( ALL VITAL
PH5OM5A1 :E!R UNIV]SAL OR "PICUL>1 & 9 S
DO+ LET U FOLL[ T ORD] ( EXPOSI;N :
3=MS1 Z WE H 9DICAT$1 6! ORD] ( NATURE4


