               ,BOOK ;,X
                   #A
  ,WE H SD PREVI\SLY1 9 \R 4T9C;N (!
V>I\S M1N+S ( ^WS1 T ,8"O0' HAS S"EAL
M1N+S2 ! ?+S T >E DIRECTLY &( _! [N
NATURE & N A3ID5T,Y CALL$ "O MAY 2
SUMM>IZ$ "U F\R H1DS1 ?\< ! ^W IS US$ 9
M S5SES4 7#A7 ,"! IS ! 3T9U\S1 EI 9
G5]AL1 OR ESPECI,Y T : IS 3T9U\S 0NATURE
& N 03TACT NOR 02+ TGR2 &( ^!1 T HAS M
UN;Y & IS PRIOR1 ^: MOVE;T IS M 9DIVISI#
& SIMPL]4 7#B7 ,T : IS A :OLE & HAS A
C]TA9 %APE & =M IS "O 9 A / HI<] DEGREE2
& ESPECI,Y IF A ?+ IS ( ? SORT 0NATURE1
& N 0=CE L ! ?+S : >E UNIFI$ 0GLUE OR
NAILS OR 02+ TI$ TGR1 I4E4 IF X HAS 9 XF
! CAUSE ( XS 3T9U;Y4 ,A ?+ IS ( ? SORT
2C XS MOVE;T IS "O & 9DIVISI# 9 PLACE &
"T2 S T EVID5TLY IF A ?+ HAS 0NATURE A
PR9CIPLE ( MOVE;T T IS (! F/ K9D 7I4E4
LOCAL MOVE;T7 &! F/ 9 T K9D 7I4E4
CIRCUL> MOVE;T71 ? IS 9 ! PRIM>Y S5SE "O
EXT5D$ ?+4 ,"S ?+S1 !N1 >E "O 9 ? WAY1
QUA 3T9U\S OR :OLE1 &! O!R ?+S T >E "O
>E ^? ^: DEF9I;N IS "O4 ,( ? SORT >E !
?+S ! ?"\ ( : IS "O1 I4E4 ^? ! ?"\ ( :
IS 9DIVISI#2 & X IS 9DIVISI# IF ! ?+ IS
9DIVISI# 9 K9D OR 9 NUMB]4 7#C7 ,9
NUMB]1 !N1 ! 9DIVIDUAL IS 9DIVISI#1 &
7#D7 9 K9D1 T : 9 9TELLIGIBIL;Y & 9 K IS
9DIVISI#1 S T T : CAUSES SUB/.ES 6BE "O
M/ 2 "O 9 ! PRIM>Y S5SE4 ,8,"O0'1 !N1
HAS ALL ^! M1N+S-! NATUR,Y 3T9U\S &!
:OLE1 &! 9DIVIDUAL &! UNIV]SAL4 ,& ALL
^! >E "O 2C 9 "S CASES ! MOVE;T1 9 O!RS
! ?"\ OR ! DEF9I;N IS 9DIVISI#4
  ,B X M/ 2 OBS]V$ T ! "QS1 :AT SORT (
?+S >E SD 6BE "O1 & :AT X IS 6BE "O &
:AT IS ! DEF9I;N ( X1 %D N 2 ASSUM$ 6BE
! SAME4 ,8,"O0' HAS ALL ^! M1N+S1 & EA*
(! ?+S 6: "O ( ^! K9DS ( UN;Y 2L;GS W 2
"O2 B ,86BE "O0' W "S"TS M1N 2+ "O ( ^!
?+S1 & "S"TS 2+ "S?+ ELSE : IS EV5 NE>]
6! M1N+ (! ^W ,8"O0' :ILE ^! O!R ?+S
APPROXIMATE 6XS APPLIC,N4 ,? IS AL TRUE
( ,8ELE;T0' OR ,8CAUSE0'1 IF "O _H BO?
6SPECIFY ! ?+S ( : X IS PR$ICA# & 6R5D]
! DEF9I;N (! ^W4 ,= 9 A S5SE FIRE IS AN
ELE;T 7& D\BT.S AL ,8! 9DEF9ITE0' OR
"S?+ ELSE (! SORT IS 0XS [N NATURE !
ELE;T71 B 9 A S5SE X IS N2 = X IS N !
SAME ?+ 6BE FIRE & 6BE AN ELE;T1 B :ILE
Z A "PICUL> ?+ )A NATURE ( XS [N FIRE IS
AN ELE;T1 ! "N ,8ELE;T0' M1NS T X HAS ?
ATTRIBUTE1 T "! IS "S?+ : IS MADE ( X Z
A PRIM>Y 3/ITU5T4 ,& S ) ,8CAUSE0' &
,8"O0' & ALL S* T]MS4 ,= ? R1SON1 TOO1
,86BE "O0' M1NS ,86BE 9DIVISI#1 2+
ESS5TI,Y "O M1NS A 8?0 & CAPA# ( 2+
ISOLAT$ EI 9 PLACE1 OR 9 =M OR ?"\0'2 OR
P]H ,86BE :OLE & 9DIVISI#0'2 B X M1NS
ESPECI,Y ,86BE ! F/ M1SURE (A K9D0'1 &
MO/ /RICTLY ( QUANT;Y2 = X IS F ? T X
HAS BE5 EXT5D$ 6! O!R CATEGORIES4 ,=
M1SURE IS T 0: QUANT;Y IS "KN2 & QUANT;Y
QUA QUANT;Y IS "KN EI 0A ,8"O0' OR 0A
NUMB]1 & ALL NUMB] IS "KN 0A ,8"O0'4
,"!=E ALL QUANT;Y QUA QUANT;Y IS "KN 0!
"O1 & T 0: QUANTITIES >E PRIM>ILY "KN IS
! "O XF2 & S ! "O IS ! />T+-PO9T ( NUMB]
QUA NUMB]4 ,& H;E 9 ! O!R CLASSES TOO
,8M1SURE0' M1NS T 0: EA* IS F/ "KN1 &!
M1SURE ( EA* IS A UNIT-IN L5G?1 9 BR1D?1
9 DEP?1 9 WEI<T1 9 SPE$4 7,! ^WS
,8WEI<T0' & ,8SPE$0' >E -MON 6BO?
3TR>IES2 = EA* ( !M HAS TWO M1N+S-
,8WEI<T0' M1NS BO? T : HAS ANY AM.T (
GRAV;Y & T : HAS AN EXCESS ( GRAV;Y1 &
,8SPE$0' BO? T : HAS ANY AM.T ( MOVE;T &
T : HAS AN EXCESS ( MOVE;T2 = EV5 ! SL[
HAS A C]TA9 SPE$ &! -P>ATIVELY LI<T A
C]TA9 WEI<T47
  ,9 ALL ^!1 !N1 ! M1SURE & />T+-PO9T IS
"S?+ "O & 9DIVISI#1 S9CE EV5 9 L9ES WE
TR1T Z 9DIVISI# ! L9E A FOOT L;G4 ,=
"EY": WE SEEK Z ! M1SURE "S?+ "O &
9DIVISI#2 & ? IS T : IS SIMPLE EI 9
QUAL;Y OR 9 QUANT;Y4 ,N[ ": X IS ?"\
IMPOSSI# 6TAKE AWAY OR 6ADD1 "! ! M1SURE
IS EXACT 7H;E T ( NUMB] IS MO/ EXACT2 =
WE POSIT ! UNIT Z 9DIVISI# 9 E RESPECT72
B 9 ALL O!R CASES WE IMITATE ? SORT (
M1SURE4 ,= 9 ! CASE (A FURL;G OR A TAL5T
OR ( ANY?+ -P>ATIVELY L>GE ANY A4I;N OR
SUBTRAC;N MI<T M EASILY ESCAPE \R NOTICE
?AN 9 ! CASE ( "S?+ SMALL]2 S T ! F/ ?+
F :1 Z F> Z \R P]CEP;N GOES1 NO?+ C 2
SUBTRACT$1 ALL M5 MAKE ! M1SURE1 :E!R (
LIQUIDS OR ( SOLIDS1 :E!R ( WEI<T OR (
SIZE2 & !Y ?9K !Y "K ! QUANT;Y :5 !Y "K
X 0M1NS ( ? M1SURE4 ,& 9DE$ !Y "K MOVE;T
TOO 0! SIMPLE MOVE;T &! QKE/2 = ?
O3UPIES L1/ "T4 ,& S 9 A/RONOMY A ,8"O0'
( ? SORT IS ! />T+-PO9T & M1SURE 7= !Y
ASSUME ! MOVE;T (! H1V5S 6BE UNI=M &!
QKE/1 & JUDGE ! O!RS 0REF];E 6X71 & 9
MUSIC ! QU>T]-T"O 72C X IS ! L1/
9T]VAL71 & 9 SPEE* ! LR4 ,& ALL ^! >E
"OS 9 ? S5SE--N T ,8"O0' IS "S?+ PR$ICA#
9 ! SAME S5SE ( ALL ( ^!1 B 9 ! S5SE WE
H M5;N$4
  ,B ! M1SURE IS N ALW "O 9 NUMB]--"S"TS
"! >E S"EAL2 E4G4 ! QU>T]-T"OS 7N 6! E>1
B Z DET]M9$ 0! RATIOS7 >E TWO1 &!
>TICULATE S.DS 0: WE M1SURE >E M ?AN "O1
&! DIAGONAL (! SQU>E & XS SIDE >E M1SUR$
0TWO QUANTITIES1 & ALL SPATIAL
MAGNITUDES REV1L SIMIL> V>IETIES ( UNIT4
,?US1 !N1 ! "O IS ! M1SURE ( ALL ?+S1 2C
WE -E 6"K ! ELE;TS 9 ! SUB/.E 0DIVID+ !
?+S EI 9 RESPECT ( QUANT;Y OR 9 RESPECT
( K9D4 ,&! "O IS 9DIVISI# J 2C ! F/ (
EA* CLASS ( ?+S IS 9DIVISI#4 ,B X IS N 9
! SAME WAY T E ,8"O0' IS 9DIVISI# E4G4 A
FOOT &A UNIT2 ! LATT] IS 9DIVISI# 9 E
RESPECT1 :ILE ! =M] M/ 2 PLAC$ AM;G ?+S
: >E UNDIVID$ 6P]CEP;N1 Z HAS BE5 SD
ALR-ONLY 6P]CEP;N1 = D\BT.S E 3T9U\S ?+
IS DIVISI#4
  ,! M1SURE IS ALW HOMOG5E\S )! ?+
M1SUR$2 ! M1SURE ( SPATIAL MAGNITUDES IS
A SPATIAL MAGNITUDE1 & 9 "PICUL> T (
L5G? IS A L5G?1 T ( BR1D? A BR1D?1 T (
>TICULATE S.D AN >TICULATE S.D1 T (
WEI<T A WEI<T1 T ( UNITS A UNIT4 7,= WE
M/ /ATE ! MATT] S1 & N SAY T ! M1SURE (
NUMB]S IS A NUMB]2 WE "\ 9DE$ 6SAY ? IF
WE 7 6USE ! CORRESPOND+ =M ( ^WS1 B !
CLAIM DOES N RE,Y CORRESPOND-X IS Z IF
"O CLAIM$ T ! M1SURE ( UNITS IS UNITS &
N A UNIT2 NUMB] IS A PLURAL;Y ( UNITS47
  ,K1 AL1 & P]CEP;N1 WE CALL ! M1SURE (
?+S =! SAME R1SON1 2C WE -E 6"K "S?+
0!M-:ILE Z A MATT] ( FACT !Y >E M1SUR$ R
?AN M1SURE O!R ?+S4 ,B X IS ) U Z IF "S
"O ELSE M1SUR$ U & WE CAME 6"K H[ BIG WE
>E 0SEE+ T HE APPLI$ ! CUBIT-M1SURE 6S*
& S* A FRAC;N ( U4 ,B ,PROTAGORAS SAYS
,8MAN IS ! M1SURE ( ALL ?+S0'1 Z IF HE
_H SD ,8! MAN :O "KS0' OR ,8! MAN :O
P]CVS0'2 & ^! 2C !Y H RESPECTIVELY K &
P]CEP;N1 : WE SAY >E ! M1SURES (
OBJECTS4 ,S* ?9K]S >E SAY+ NO?+1 !N1
:ILE !Y APPE> 6BE SAY+ "S?+ REM>KA#4
  ,EVID5TLY1 !N1 UN;Y 9 ! /RICTE/ S5SE1
IF WE DEF9E X AC 6! M1N+ (! ^W1 IS A
M1SURE1 & MO/ PROP]LY ( QUANT;Y1 &
SECONDLY ( QUAL;Y4 ,& "S ?+S W 2 "O IF
!Y >E 9DIVISI# 9 QUANT;Y1 & O!RS IF !Y
>E 9DIVISI# 9 QUAL;Y2 & S T : IS "O IS
9DIVISI#1 EI ABSOLUTELY OR QUA "O4
                   #B
  ,) REG>D 6! SUB/.E & NATURE (! "O WE
M/ ASK 9 : ( TWO WAYS X EXI/S4 ,? IS ! V
"Q T WE REVIEW$ 9 \R 4CUS.N ( PRO#MS1
VIZ4 :AT ! "O IS & H[ WE M/ 3CV ( X1
:E!R WE M/ TAKE ! "O XF Z 2+ A SUB/.E 7Z
BO? ! ,PY?AGOR1NS SAY 9 E>LI] & ,PLATO 9
LAT] "TS71 OR "! IS1 R1 AN "ULY+ NATURE
&! "O %D 2 DESCRIB$ M 9TELLIGIBLY & M 9
! MANN] (! PHYSICAL PHILOSOPH]S1 ( :OM
"O SAYS ! "O IS LOVE1 ANO!R SAYS X IS
AIR1 & ANO!R ! 9DEF9ITE4
  ,IF1 !N1 NO UNIV]SAL C 2 A SUB/.E1 Z
HAS BE5 SD \R 4CUS.N ( SUB/.E & 2+1 & IF
2+ XF _C 2 A SUB/.E 9 ! S5SE (A "O A"P F
! _M 7= X IS -MON 6! _M71 B IS ONLY A
PR$ICATE1 CLE>LY UN;Y AL _C 2 A SUB/.E2
= 2+ & UN;Y >E ! MO/ UNIV]SAL ( ALL
PR$ICATES4 ,"!=E1 ON ! "O H&1 G5]A >E N
C]TA9 5TITIES & SUB/.ES SEP>A# F O!R
?+S2 & ON ! O!R H& ! "O _C 2 A G5US1 =!
SAME R1SONS = : 2+ & SUB/.E _C 2 G5]A4
  ,FUR!R1 ! POSI;N M/ 2 SIMIL> 9 ALL !
K9DS ( UN;Y4 ,N[ ,8UN;Y0' HAS J Z _M
M1N+S Z ,82+0'2 S T S9CE 9 ! SPH]E (
QUALITIES ! "O IS "S?+ DEF9ITE-"S
"PICUL> K9D ( ?+-& SIMIL>LY 9 ! SPH]E (
QUANTITIES1 CLE>LY WE M/ 9 E CATEGORY
ASK :AT ! "O IS1 Z WE M/ ASK :AT !
EXI/5T IS1 S9CE X IS N 5 6SAY T XS
NATURE IS J 6BE "O OR EXI/5T4 ,B 9
COL\RS ! "O IS A COL\R1 E4G4 :ITE1 & !N
! O!R COL\RS >E OBS]V$ 6BE PRODUC$ \ ( ?
& BLACK1 & BLACK IS ! PRIV,N ( :ITE1 Z
D>K;S ( LI<T4 ,"!=E IF ALL EXI/5T ?+S 7
COL\RS1 EXI/5T ?+S WD H BE5 A NUMB]1
9DE$1 B ( :AT8 ,CLE>LY ( COL\RS2 &!
,8"O0' WD H BE5 A "PICUL> ,8"O0'1 I4E4
:ITE4 ,& SIMIL>LY IF ALL EXI/+ ?+S 7
TUNES1 !Y WD H BE5 A NUMB]1 B A NUMB] (
QU>T]-T"OS1 & _! ESS;E WD N H BE5 NUMB]2
&! "O WD H BE5 "S?+ ^: SUB/.E 0 N 6BE "O
B 6BE ! QU>T]-T"O4 ,& SIMIL>LY IF ALL
EXI/5T ?+S _H BE5 >TICULATE S.DS1 !Y WD
H BE5 A NUMB] ( LRS1 &! "O WD H BE5 A
V[EL4 ,& IF ALL EXI/5T ?+S 7 RECTIL9E>
FIGURES1 !Y WD H BE5 A NUMB] ( FIGURES1
&! "O WD H BE5 ! TRIANGLE4 ,&! SAME
>GU;T APPLIES 6ALL O!R CLASSES4 ,S9CE1
"!=E1 :ILE "! >E NUMB]S &A "O BO? 9
A6EC;NS & 9 QUALITIES & 9 QUANTITIES & 9
MOVE;T1 9 ALL CASES ! NUMB] IS A NUMB] (
"PICUL> ?+S &! "O IS "O "S?+1 & XS
SUB/.E IS N J 6BE "O1 ! SAME M/ 2 TRUE (
SUB/.ES AL2 = X IS TRUE ( ALL CASES
ALIKE4
  ,T ! "O1 !N1 9 E CLASS IS A DEF9ITE
?+1 & 9 NO CASE IS XS NATURE J ?1 UN;Y1
IS EVID5T2 B Z 9 COL\RS ! "O-XF : WE M/
SEEK IS "O COL\R1 S TOO 9 SUB/.E ! "O-XF
IS "O SUB/.E4 ,T 9 A S5SE UN;Y M1NS !
SAME Z 2+ IS CLE> F ! FACTS T XS M1N+S
CORRESPOND 6! CATEGORIES "O 6"O1 & X IS
N -PRIS$ )9 ANY CATEGORY 7E4G4 X IS
-PRIS$ NEI 9 ,8:AT A ?+ IS0' NOR 9
QUAL;Y1 B IS RELAT$ 6!M J Z 2+ IS72 T 9
,8"O MAN0' NO?+ M IS PR$ICAT$ ?AN 9
,8MAN0' 7J Z 2+ IS NO?+ A"P F SUB/.E OR
QUAL;Y OR QUANT;Y72 & T 6BE "O IS J 6BE
A "PICUL> ?+4
                   #C
  ,! "O &! _M >E OPPOS$ 9 S"EAL WAYS1 (
: "O IS ! OPPOSI;N (! "O & PLURAL;Y Z
9DIVISI# & DIVISI#2 = T : IS EI DIVID$
OR DIVISI# IS CALL$ A PLURAL;Y1 & T : IS
9DIVISI# OR N DIVID$ IS CALL$ "O4 ,N[
S9CE OPPOSI;N IS ( F\R K9DS1 & "O ( ^!
TWO T]MS IS PRIVATIVE 9 M1N+1 !Y M/ 2
3TR>IES1 & NEI 3TRADICTORY NOR
CORRELATIVE 9 M1N+4 ,&! "O DERIVES XS "N
& XS EXPLAN,N F XS 3TR>Y1 ! 9DIVISI# F !
DIVISI#1 2C PLURAL;Y &! DIVISI# IS M
P]CEPTI# ?AN ! 9DIVISI#1 S T 9 DEF9I;N
PLURAL;Y IS PRIOR 6! 9DIVISI#1 2C (!
3DI;NS ( P]CEP;N4
  ,6! "O 2L;G1 Z WE 9DICAT$ GRAPHIC,Y 9
\R 4T9C;N (! 3TR>IES1 ! SAME &! L &!
EQUAL1 & 6PLURAL;Y 2L;G ! O!R &! UNLIKE
&! UNEQUAL4 ,8,! SAME0' HAS S"EAL M1N+S2
7#A7 WE "S"TS M1N ,8! SAME NUM]IC,Y0'2
AG1 7#B7 WE CALL A ?+ ! SAME IF X IS "O
BO? 9 DEF9I;N & 9 NUMB]1 E4G4 Y >E "O )
YRF BO? 9 =M & 9 MATT]2 & AG1 7#C7 IF !
DEF9I;N ( XS PRIM>Y ESS;E IS "O2 E4G4
EQUAL /RAI<T L9ES >E ! SAME1 & S >E
EQUAL & EQUAL-ANGL$ QUADRILAT]ALS2 "! >E
_M S*1 B 9 ^! EQUAL;Y 3/ITUTES UN;Y4
  ,?+S >E L IF1 N 2+ ABSOLUTELY ! SAME1
NOR )\T DI6];E 9 RESPECT ( _! 3CRETE
SUB/.E1 !Y >E ! SAME 9 =M2 E4G4 ! L>G]
SQU>E IS L ! SMALL]1 & UNEQUAL /RAI<T
L9ES >E L2 !Y >E L1 B N ABSOLUTELY !
SAME4 ,O!R ?+S >E L1 IF1 HAV+ ! SAME =M1
& 2+ ?+S 9 : DI6];E ( DEGREE IS POSSI#1
!Y H NO DI6];E ( DEGREE4 ,O!R ?+S1 IF !Y
H A QUAL;Y T IS 9 =M "O & SAME-E4G4
:ITE;S-IN A GRT] OR LESS DEGREE1 >E
CALL$ L 2C _! =M IS "O4 ,O!R ?+S >E
CALL$ L IF ! QUALITIES !Y H 9 -MON >E M
NUM]\S ?AN ^? 9 : !Y DI6]-EI ! QUALITIES
9 G5]AL OR ! PROM95T QUALITIES2 E4G4 T9
IS L SILV]1 QUA :ITE1 & GOLD IS L FIRE1
QUA YELL[ & R$4
  ,EVID5TLY1 !N1 ,8O!R0' & ,8UNLIKE0' AL
H S"EAL M1N+S4 ,&! O!R 9 "O S5SE IS !
OPPOSITE (! SAME 7S T "EY?+ IS EI ! SAME
Z OR O!R ?AN "EY?+ ELSE74 ,9 ANO!R S5SE
?+S >E O!R UN.S BO? _! MATT] & _!
DEF9I;N >E "O 7S T Y >E O!R ?AN YR
NEI<B\R74 ,! O!R 9 ! ?IRD S5SE IS
EXEMPLIFI$ 9 ! OBJECTS ( MA!MATICS4
,8,O!R OR ! SAME0' C "!=E 2 PR$ICAT$ (
"EY?+ ) REG>D 6"EY?+ ELSE-B ONLY IF !
?+S >E "O & EXI/5T1 = ,8O!R0' IS N !
3TRADICTORY ( ,8! SAME0'2 : IS :Y X IS N
PR$ICAT$ ( NON-EXI/5T ?+S 7:ILE ,8N !
SAME0' IS S PR$ICAT$74 ,X IS PR$ICAT$ (
ALL EXI/+ ?+S2 = "EY?+ T IS EXI/5T & "O
IS 0XS V NATURE EI "O OR N "O ) ANY?+
ELSE4
  ,! O!R1 !N1 &! SAME >E ?US OPPOS$4 ,B
DI6];E IS N ! SAME Z O!R;S4 ,=! O!R & T
: X IS O!R ?AN NE$ N 2 O!R 9 "S DEF9ITE
RESPECT 7= "EY?+ T IS EXI/5T IS EI O!R
OR ! SAME71 B T : IS DI6]5T IS DI6]5T F
"S "PICUL> ?+ 9 "S "PICUL> RESPECT1 S T
"! M/ 2 "S?+ ID5TICAL ":BY !Y DI6]4 ,& ?
ID5TICAL ?+ IS G5US OR SPECIES2 = "EY?+
T DI6]S DI6]S EI 9 G5US OR 9 SPECIES1 9
G5US IF ! ?+S H N _! MATT] 9 -MON & >E N
G5]AT$ \ ( EA* O!R 7I4E4 IF !Y 2L;G
6DI6]5T FIGURES ( PR$IC,N71 & 9 SPECIES
IF !Y H ! SAME G5US 7,8G5US' M1N+ T
ID5TICAL ?+ : IS ESS5TI,Y PR$ICAT$ ( BO?
! DI6]5T ?+S74
  ,3TR>IES >E DI6]5T1 & 3TR>IETY IS A
K9D ( DI6];E4 ,T WE >E "R 9 ? SUPPOSI;N
IS %[N 09DUC;N4 ,= ALL ( ^! TOO >E SE5
6BE DI6]5T2 !Y >E N M]ELY O!R1 B "S >E
O!R 9 G5US1 & O!RS >E 9 ! SAME L9E (
PR$IC,N1 & "!=E 9 ! SAME G5US1 &! SAME 9
G5US4 ,WE H 4T+UI%$ ELSE": :AT SORT (
?+S >E ! SAME OR O!R 9 G5US4
                   #D
  ,S9CE ?+S : DI6] MAY DI6] F "O ANO!R M
OR LESS1 "! IS AL A GRTE/ DI6];E1 & ? ,I
CALL 3TR>IETY4 ,T 3TR>IETY IS ! GRTE/
DI6];E IS MADE CLE> 09DUC;N4 ,= ?+S :
DI6] 9 G5US H NO WAY 6"O ANO!R1 B >E TOO
F> 4TANT & >E N -P>A#2 &= ?+S T DI6] 9
SPECIES ! EXTREMES F : G5],N TAKES PLACE
>E ! 3TR>IES1 &! 4T.E 2T EXTREMES-& "!=E
T 2T ! 3TR>IES-IS ! GRTE/4
  ,B SURELY T : IS GRTE/ 9 EA* CLASS IS
-PLETE4 ,= T IS GRTE/ : _C 2 EXCE$$1 & T
IS -PLETE 2Y : NO?+ C 2 F.D4 ,=! -PLETE
DI6];E M>KS ! 5D (A S]IES 7J Z ! O!R ?+S
: >E CALL$ -PLETE >E S CALL$ 2C !Y H
ATTA9$ AN 5D71 & 2Y ! 5D "! IS NO?+2 = 9
"EY?+ X IS ! EXTREME & 9CLUDES ALL ELSE1
& "!=E "! IS NO?+ 2Y ! 5D1 &! -PLETE
NE$S NO?+ FUR!R4 ,F ?1 !N1 X IS CLE> T
3TR>IETY IS -PLETE DI6];E2 & Z 3TR>IES
>E S CALL$ 9 S"EAL S5SES1 _! MODES (
-PLETE;S W ANSW] 6! V>I\S MODES (
3TR>IETY : ATTA* 6! 3TR>IES4
  ,? 2+ S1 X IS CLE> T "O ?+ H M ?AN "O
3TR>Y 7= NEI C "! 2 ANY?+ M EXTREME ?AN
! EXTREME1 NOR C "! 2 M ?AN TWO EXTREMES
=! "O 9T]VAL71 &1 6PUT ! MATT] G5],Y1 ?
IS CLE> IF 3TR>IETY IS A DI6];E1 & IF
DI6];E1 & "!=E AL ! -PLETE DI6];E1 M/ 2
2T TWO ?+S4
  ,&! O!R -MONLY A3EPT$ DEF9I;NS (
3TR>IES >E AL NECESS>ILY TRUE4 ,= N ONLY
IS 7#A7 ! -PLETE DI6];E ! GRTE/ DI6];E
7= WE C GET NO DI6];E 2Y X ( ?+S DI6]+
EI 9 G5US OR 9 SPECIES2 = X HAS BE5 %[N
T "! IS NO ,8DI6];E0' 2T ANY?+ &! ?+S
\TSIDE XS G5US1 & AM;G ! ?+S : DI6] 9
SPECIES ! -PLETE DI6];E IS ! GRTE/72 B
AL 7#B7 ! ?+S 9 ! SAME G5US : DI6] MO/
>E 3TR>Y 7=! -PLETE DI6];E IS ! GRTE/
DI6];E 2T SPECIES (! SAME G5US72 & 7#C7
! ?+S 9 ! SAME RECEPTIVE MAT]IAL : DI6]
MO/ >E 3TR>Y 7=! MATT] IS ! SAME =
3TR>IES72 & 7#D7 (! ?+S : FALL "U ! SAME
FACULTY ! MO/ DI6]5T >E 3TR>Y 7= "O
SCI;E D1LS ) "O CLASS ( ?+S1 & 9 ^! !
-PLETE DI6];E IS ! GRTE/74
  ,! PRIM>Y 3TR>IETY IS T 2T POSITIVE
/ATE & PRIV,N-N E PRIV,N1 H["E 7=
,8PRIV,N0' HAS S"EAL M1N+S71 B T : IS
-PLETE4 ,&! O!R 3TR>IES M/ 2 CALL$ S )
REF];E 6^!1 "S 2C !Y POSSESS ^!1 O!RS 2C
!Y PRODUCE OR T5D 6PRODUCE !M1 O!RS 2C
!Y >E ACQUISI;NS OR LOSSES ( ^! OR ( O!R
3TR>IES4 ,N[ IF ! K9DS ( OPPOSI;N >E
3TRADIC;N & PRIV,N & 3TR>IETY & REL,N1 &
( ^! ! F/ IS 3TRADIC;N1 & 3TRADIC;N
ADMITS ( NO 9T]M$IATE1 :ILE 3TR>IES
ADMIT ( "O1 CLE>LY 3TRADIC;N & 3TR>IETY
>E N ! SAME4 ,B PRIV,N IS A K9D (
3TRADIC;N2 = :AT SU6]S PRIV,N1 EI 9
G5]AL OR 9 "S DET]M9ATE WAY1 EI T : IS Q
9CAPA# ( HAV+ "S ATTRIBUTE OR T :1 2+ (
S* A NATURE Z 6H X1 HAS X N2 "H WE H ALR
A V>IETY ( M1N+S1 : H BE5 4T+UI%$
ELSE":4 ,PRIV,N1 "!=E1 IS A 3TRADIC;N OR
9CAPAC;Y : IS DET]M9ATE OR TAK5 AL;G )!
RECEPTIVE MAT]IAL4 ,? IS ! R1SON :Y1
:ILE 3TRADIC;N DOES N ADMIT ( AN
9T]M$IATE1 PRIV,N "S"TS DOES2 = "EY?+ IS
EQUAL OR N EQUAL1 B N "EY?+ IS EQUAL OR
UNEQUAL1 OR IF X IS1 X IS ONLY )9 !
SPH]E ( T : IS RECEPTIVE ( EQUAL;Y4 ,IF1
!N1 ! -+S-TO-BE : HAPP5 6! MATT] />T F !
3TR>IES1 & PROCE$ EI F ! =M &! POSSES.N
(! =M OR F A PRIV,N (! =M OR %APE1
CLE>LY ALL 3TR>IETY M/ 2 PRIV,N1 B
PRESUMABLY N ALL PRIV,N IS 3TR>IETY 7!
R1SON 2+ T T HAS SU6]$ PRIV,N MAY H
SU6]$ X 9 S"EAL WAYS72 = X IS ONLY !
EXTREMES F : *ANGES PROCE$ T >E 3TR>IES4
  ,& ? IS OBVI\S AL 09DUC;N4 ,= E
3TR>IETY 9VOLVES1 Z "O ( XS T]MS1 A
PRIV,N1 B N ALL CASES >E ALIKE2 9EQUAL;Y
IS ! PRIV,N ( EQUAL;Y & UNLIKE;S (
LIKE;S1 & ON ! O!R H& VICE IS ! PRIV,N (
VIRTUE4 ,B ! CASES DI6] 9 A WAY ALR
DESCRIB$2 9 "O CASE WE M1N SIMPLY T ! ?+
HAS SU6]$ PRIV,N1 9 ANO!R CASE T X HAS
D"O S EI AT A C]TA9 "T OR 9 A C]TA9 "P
7E4G4 AT A C]TA9 AGE OR 9 ! DOM9ANT "P71
OR "?\T4 ,? IS :Y 9 "S CASES "! IS A M1N
7"! >E M5 :O >E NEI GD NOR BAD71 & 9
O!RS "! IS N 7A NUMB] M/ 2 EI ODD OR
EV574 ,FUR!R1 "S 3TR>IES H _! SUBJECT
DEF9$1 O!RS H N4 ,"!=E X IS EVID5T T "O
(! 3TR>IES IS ALW PRIVATIVE2 B X IS 5 IF
? IS TRUE (! F/-I4E4 ! G5]IC-3TR>IES1
E4G4 ! "O &! _M2 =! O!RS C 2 REDUC$ 6^!4
                   #E
  ,S9CE "O ?+ HAS "O 3TR>Y1 WE MI<T
RAISE ! "Q H[ ! "O IS OPPOS$ 6! _M1 &!
EQUAL 6! GRT &! SMALL4 ,= IF WE US$ ! ^W
,8:E!R0' ONLY 9 AN ANTI!SIS S* Z ,8:E!R
X IS :ITE OR BLACK0'1 OR ,8:E!R X IS
:ITE OR N :ITE0' 7WE D N ASK ,8:E!R X IS
A MAN OR :ITE0'71 UN.S WE >E PROCE$+ ON
A PRIOR ASSUMP;N & ASK+ "S?+ S* Z ,8:E!R
X 0 ,CLEON OR ,SOCRATES T CAME0' Z ? IS
N A NEC 4JUNC;N 9 ANY CLASS ( ?+S2 YET
EV5 ? IS AN EXT5.N F ! CASE ( OPPOSITES2
= OPPOSITES AL"O _C 2 PRES5T TGR2 & WE
ASSUME ? 9COMPATIBIL;Y "H TOO 9 ASK+ : (
! TWO CAME2 = IF !Y MI<T BO? H -E1 ! "Q
WD H BE5 ABSURD2 B IF !Y MI<T1 EV5 S ?
FALLS J Z M* 96AN ANTI!SIS1 T (! ,8"O OR
_M0'1 I4E4 ,8:E!R BO? CAME OR "O (!
TWO0'3-IF1 !N1 ! "Q ,8:E!R0' IS ALW
3C]N$ ) OPPOSITES1 & WE C ASK ,8:E!R X
IS GRT] OR LESS OR EQUAL0'1 :AT IS !
OPPOSI;N (! EQUAL 6! O!R TWO8 ,X IS N
3TR>Y EI 6"O AL"O OR 6BO?2 = :Y %D X 2
3TR>Y 6! GRT] R ?AN 6! LESS8 ,FUR!R1 !
EQUAL IS 3TR>Y 6! UNEQUAL4 ,"!=E IF X IS
3TR>Y 6! GRT] &! LESS1 X W 2 3TR>Y 6M
?+S ?AN "O4 ,B IF ! UNEQUAL M1NS ! SAME
Z BO? ! GRT] &! LESS TGR1 ! EQUAL W 2
OPPOSITE 6BO? 7&! DI6ICULTY SUPPORTS ^?
:O SAY ! UNEQUAL IS A ,8TWO0'71 B X
FOLL[S T "O ?+ IS 3TR>Y 6TWO O!RS1 : IS
IMPOSSI#4 ,AG1 ! EQUAL IS EVID5TLY
9T]M$IATE 2T ! GRT &! SMALL1 B NO
3TR>IETY IS EI OBS]V$ 6BE 9T]M$IATE1 OR1
F XS DEF9I;N1 C 2 S2 = X WD N 2 -PLETE
IF X 7 9T]M$IATE 2T ANY TWO ?+S1 B R X
ALW HAS "S?+ 9T]M$IATE 2T XS [N T]MS4
  ,X REMA9S1 !N1 T X IS OPPOS$ EI Z
NEG,N OR Z PRIV,N4 ,X _C 2 ! NEG,N OR
PRIV,N ( "O (! TWO2 = :Y (! GRT R ?AN (!
SMALL8 ,X IS1 !N1 ! PRIVATIVE NEG,N (
BO?4 ,? IS :Y ,8:E!R0' IS SD ) REF];E
6BO?1 N 6"O (! TWO 7E4G4 ,8:E!R X IS
GRT] OR EQUAL0' OR ,8:E!R X IS EQUAL OR
LESS0'72 "! >E ALW ?REE CASES4 ,B X IS N
A NEC PRIV,N2 = N "EY?+ : IS N GRT] OR
LESS IS EQUAL1 B ONLY ! ?+S : >E ( S* A
NATURE Z 6H ^! ATTRIBUTES4
  ,! EQUAL1 !N1 IS T : IS NEI GRT NOR
SMALL B IS NATUR,Y FITT$ 6BE EI GRT OR
SMALL2 & X IS OPPOS$ 6BO? Z A PRIVATIVE
NEG,N 7& "!=E IS AL 9T]M$IATE74 ,& T :
IS NEI GD NOR BAD IS OPPOS$ 6BO?1 B HAS
NO "N2 = EA* ( ^! HAS S"EAL M1N+S &!
RECIPI5T SUBJECT IS N "O2 B T : IS NEI
:ITE NOR BLACK HAS M CLAIM 6UN;Y4 ,YET
EV5 ? HAS N "O "N1 ?\< ! COL\RS ( : ?
NEG,N IS PRIVATIVELY PR$ICAT$ >E 9 A WAY
LIMIT$2 = !Y M/ 2 EI GREY OR YELL[ OR
"S?+ ELSE (! K9D4 ,"!=E X IS AN 9CORRECT
CRITICISM T IS PASS$ 0^? :O ?9K T ALL S*
PHRASES >E US$ 9 ! SAME WAY1 S T T : IS
NEI A %OE NOR A H& WD 2 9T]M$IATE 2T A
%OE &A H&1 S9CE T : IS NEI GD NOR BAD IS
9T]M$IATE 2T ! GD &! BAD-Z IF "! M/ 2 AN
9T]M$IATE 9 ALL CASES4 ,B ? DOES N
NECESS>ILY FOLL[4 ,=! "O PHRASE IS A
JO9T D5IAL ( OPPOSITES 2T : "! IS AN
9T]M$IATE &A C]TA9 NATURAL 9T]VAL2 B 2T
! O!R TWO "! IS NO ,8DI6];E0'2 =! ?+S1 !
D5IALS ( : >E -B9$1 2L;G 6DI6]5T
CLASSES1 S T ! SUB/RATUM IS N "O4
                   #F
  ,WE MI<T RAISE SIMIL> "QS AB ! "O &!
_M4 ,= IF ! _M >E ABSOLUTELY OPPOS$ 6!
"O1 C]TA9 IMPOSSI# RESULTS FOLL[4 ,"O W
!N 2 FEW1 :E!R FEW 2 TR1T$ "H Z S+UL> OR
PLURAL2 =! _M >E OPPOS$ AL 6! FEW4
,FUR!R1 TWO W 2 _M1 S9CE ! D\# IS
MULTIPLE & ,8D\#0' DERIVES XS M1N+ F
,8TWO0'2 "!=E "O W 2 FEW2 = :AT IS T 9
-P>ISON ) : TWO >E _M1 EXCEPT "O1 : M/
"!=E 2 FEW8 ,= "! IS NO?+ FEW]4 ,FUR!R1
IF ! M* &! LL >E 9 PLURAL;Y :AT ! L;G &!
%ORT >E 9 L5G?1 & :AT"E IS M* IS AL _M1
&! _M >E M* 7UN.S1 9DE$1 "! IS A DI6];E
9 ! CASE ( AN EASILY-B.D$ 3T9UUM71 ! LL
7OR FEW7 W 2 A PLURAL;Y4 ,"!=E "O IS A
PLURAL;Y IF X IS FEW2 & ? X M/ BE1 IF
TWO >E _M4 ,B P]H1 :ILE ! ,8_M0' >E 9 A
S5SE SD 6BE AL ,8M*0'1 X IS )A DI6];E2
E4G4 WAT] IS M* B N _M4 ,B ,8_M0' IS
APPLI$ 6! ?+S T >E DIVISI#2 9 ! "O S5SE
X M1NS A PLURAL;Y : IS EXCESSIVE EI
ABSOLUTELY OR RELATIVELY 7:ILE ,8FEW0'
IS SIMIL>LY A PLURAL;Y : IS DEFICI5T71 &
9 ANO!R S5SE X M1NS NUMB]1 9 : S5SE AL"O
X IS OPPOS$ 6! "O4 ,= WE SAY ,8"O OR
_M0'1 J Z IF "O 7 6SAY ,8"O & "OS0' OR
,8:ITE ?+ & :ITE ?+S0'1 OR 6-P>E ! ?+S T
H BE5 M1SUR$ )! M1SURE4 ,X IS 9 ? S5SE
AL T MULTIPLES >E S CALL$4 ,= EA* NUMB]
IS SD 6BE _M 2C X 3SI/S ( "OS & 2C EA*
NUMB] IS M1SURA# 0"O2 & X IS ,8_M0' Z T
: IS OPPOS$ 6"O1 N 6! FEW4 ,9 ? S5SE1
!N1 EV5 TWO IS _M-N1 H["E1 9 ! S5SE (A
PLURAL;Y : IS EXCESSIVE EI RELATIVELY OR
ABSOLUTELY2 X IS ! F/ PLURAL;Y4 ,B )\T
QUALIFIC,N TWO IS FEW2 = X IS F/
PLURAL;Y : IS DEFICI5T 7= ? R1SON
,ANAXAGORAS 0 N "R 9 L1V+ ! SUBJECT )!
/ATE;T T ,8ALL ?+S 7 TGR1 B.D.S BO? 9
PLURAL;Y & 9 SMALL;S'-": = ,8& 9
SMALL;S0' HE %D H SD ,8& 9 FEW;S0'2 = !Y
CD N H BE5 B.D.S 9 FEW;S71 S9CE X IS N
"O1 Z "S SAY1 B TWO1 T MAKE A FEW4
  ,! "O IS OPPOS$ !N 6! _M 9 NUMB]S Z
M1SURE 6?+ M1SURA#2 & ^! >E OPPOS$ Z >E
! RELATIVES : >E N F _! V NATURE
RELATIVES4 ,WE H 4T+UI%$ ELSE": ! TWO
S5SES 9 : RELATIVES >E S CALL$3-7#A7 Z
3TR>IES2 7#B7 Z K 6?+ "KN1 A T]M 2+
CALL$ RELATIVE 2C ANO!R IS RELATIVE 6X4
,"! IS NO?+ 6PREV5T "O F 2+ FEW] ?AN
"S?+1 E4G4 ?AN TWO2 = IF "O IS FEW]1 X
IS N "!=E FEW4 ,PLURAL;Y IS Z X 7 !
CLASS 6: NUMB] 2L;GS2 = NUMB] IS
PLURAL;Y M1SURA# 0"O1 & "O & NUMB] >E 9
A S5SE OPPOS$1 N Z 3TR>Y1 B Z WE H SD "S
RELATIVE T]MS >E OPPOS$2 = 9ASM* Z "O IS
M1SURE &! O!R M1SURA#1 !Y >E OPPOS$4 ,?
IS :Y N "EY?+ T IS "O IS A NUMB]2 I4E4
IF ! ?+ IS 9DIVISI# X IS N A NUMB]4 ,B
?\< K IS SIMIL>LY SPOK5 ( Z RELATIVE 6!
"KA#1 ! REL,N DOES N "W \ SIMIL>LY2 =
:ILE K MI<T 2 ?"\ 6BE ! M1SURE1 &! "KA#
! ?+ M1SUR$1 ! FACT T ALL K IS "KA#1 B N
ALL T IS "KA# IS K1 2C 9 A S5SE K IS
M1SUR$ 0! "KA#4-,PLURAL;Y IS 3TR>Y NEI
6! FEW 7! _M 2+ 3TR>Y 6? Z EXCESSIVE
PLURAL;Y 6PLURAL;Y EXCE$$71 NOR 6! "O 9
E S5SE2 B 9 ! "O S5SE ^! >E 3TR>Y1 Z HAS
BE5 SD1 2C ! =M] IS DIVISI# &! LATT]
9DIVISI#1 :ILE 9 ANO!R S5SE !Y >E
RELATIVE Z K IS 6"KA#1 IF PLURAL;Y IS
NUMB] &! "O IS A M1SURE4
                   #G
  ,S9CE 3TR>IES ADMIT ( AN 9T]M$IATE & 9
"S CASES H X1 9T]M$IATES M/ 2 -POS$ (!
3TR>IES4 ,= 7#A7 ALL 9T]M$IATES >E 9 !
SAME G5US Z ! ?+S 2T : !Y /&4 ,= WE CALL
^? ?+S 9T]M$IATES1 96: T : *ANGES M/
*ANGE F/2 E4G4 IF WE 7 6PASS F ! HI<E/
/R+ 6! L[E/ 0! SMALLE/ 9T]VALS1 WE %D -E
SOON] 6! 9T]M$IATE NOTES1 & 9 COL\RS IF
WE 7 6PASS F :ITE 6BLACK1 WE %D -E SOON]
6CRIMSON & GREY ?AN 6BLACK2 & SIMIL>LY 9
ALL O!R CASES4 ,B 6*ANGE F "O G5US
6ANO!R G5US IS N POSSI# EXCEPT 9 AN
9CID5TAL WAY1 Z F COL\R 6FIGURE4
,9T]M$IATES1 !N1 M/ 2 9 ! SAME G5US BO?
Z "O ANO!R & Z ! ?+S !Y /& 2T4
  ,B 7#B7 ALL 9T]M$IATES /& 2T OPPOSITES
( "S K9D2 = ONLY 2T ^! C *ANGE TAKE
PLACE 9 VIRTUE ( _! [N NATURE 7S T AN
9T]M$IATE IS IMPOSSI# 2T ?+S : >E N
OPPOSITE2 = !N "! WD 2 *ANGE : 0 N F "O
OPPOSITE T[>DS ! O!R74 ,( OPPOSITES1
3TRADICTORIES ADMIT ( NO MI4LE T]M2 = ?
IS :AT 3TRADIC;N IS-AN OPPOSI;N1 "O OR
O!R SIDE ( : M/ ATTA* 6ANY?+ :AT"E1 I4E4
: HAS NO 9T]M$IATE4 ,( O!R OPPOSITES1 "S
>E RELATIVE1 O!RS PRIVATIVE1 O!RS 3TR>Y4
,( RELATIVE T]MS1 ^? : >E N 3TR>Y H NO
9T]M$IATE2 ! R1SON IS T !Y >E N 9 ! SAME
G5US4 ,= :AT 9T]M$IATE CD "! 2 2T K &
"KA#8 ,B 2T GRT & SMALL "! IS "O4
  7#C7 ,IF 9T]M$IATES >E 9 ! SAME G5US1
Z HAS BE5 %[N1 & /& 2T 3TR>IES1 !Y M/ 2
-POS$ ( ^! 3TR>IES4 ,= EI "! W 2 A G5US
9CLUD+ ! 3TR>IES OR "! W 2 N"O4 ,& IF
7A7 "! IS 6BE A G5US 9 S* A WAY T X IS
"S?+ PRIOR 6! 3TR>IES1 ! DI6]5TIAE :
3/ITUT$ ! 3TR>Y SPECIES-(-A-G5US W 2
3TR>IES PRIOR 6! SPECIES2 = SPECIES >E
-POS$ (! G5US &! DI6]5TIAE4 7,E4G4 IF
:ITE & BLACK >E 3TR>IES1 & "O IS A PI]C+
COL\R &! O!R A -PRESS+ COL\R1 ^!
DI6]5TIAE-,8PI]C+0' & ,8-PRESS+'->E
PRIOR2 S T ^! >E PRIOR 3TR>IES ( "O
ANO!R47 ,B1 AG1 ! SPECIES : DI6]
3TR>IWISE >E ! M TRULY 3TR>Y SPECIES4
,&! O!R4SPECIES1 I4E4 ! 9T]M$IATES1 M/ 2
-POS$ ( _! G5US & _! DI6]5TIAE4 7,E4G4
ALL COL\RS : >E 2T :ITE & BLACK M/ 2 SD
6BE -POS$ (! G5US1 I4E4 COL\R1 & C]TA9
DI6]5TIAE4 ,B ^! DI6]5TIAE W N 2 !
PRIM>Y 3TR>IES2 O!RWISE E COL\R WD 2 EI
:ITE OR BLACK4 ,!Y >E DI6]5T1 !N1 F !
PRIM>Y 3TR>IES2 & "!=E !Y W 2 2T !
PRIM>Y 3TR>IES2 ! PRIM>Y DI6]5TIAE >E
,8PI]C+0' & ,8-PRESS+0'47
  ,"!=E X IS 7B7 ) REG>D 6^! 3TR>IES : D
N FALL )9 A G5US T WE M/ F/ ASK ( :AT _!
9T]M$IATES >E -POS$4 7,= ?+S : >E 9 !
SAME G5US M/ 2 -POS$ ( T]MS 9 : ! G5US
IS N AN ELE;T1 OR ELSE 2 !MVS
9COMPOSITE47 ,N[ 3TR>IES D N 9VOLVE "O
ANO!R 9 _! -POSI;N1 & >E "!=E F/
PR9CIPLES2 B ! 9T]M$IATES >E EI ALL
9COMPOSITE1 OR N"O ( !M4 ,B "! IS "S?+
-P.D$ \ (! 3TR>IES1 S T "! C 2 A *ANGE F
A 3TR>Y 6X SOON] ?AN 6! O!R 3TR>Y2 = X W
H LESS (! QUAL;Y 9 "Q ?AN ! "O 3TR>Y & M
?AN ! O!R4 ,? AL1 !N1 W -E 2T ! 3TR>IES4
,ALL ! O!R 9T]M$IATES AL1 "!=E1 >E
-POSITE2 = T : HAS M (A QUAL;Y ?AN "O ?+
& LESS ?AN ANO!R IS -P.D$ "SH[ \ (! ?+S
?AN : X IS SD 6H M & LESS RESPECTIVELY (
! QUAL;Y4 ,& S9CE "! >E NO O!R ?+S PRIOR
6! 3TR>IES & HOMOG5E\S )! 9T]M$IATES1
ALL 9T]M$IATES M/ 2 -P.D$ \ (! 3TR>IES4
,"!=E AL ALL ! 9F]IOR CLASSES1 BO? !
3TR>IES & _! 9T]M$IATES1 W 2 -P.D$ \ (!
PRIM>Y 3TR>IES4 ,CLE>LY1 !N1 9T]M$IATES
>E 7#A7 ALL 9 ! SAME G5US & 7#B7
9T]M$IATE 2T 3TR>IES1 & 7#C7 ALL -P.D$ \
(! 3TR>IES4
                   #H
  ,T : IS O!R 9 SPECIES IS O!R ?AN "S?+
9 "S?+1 & ? M/ 2L;G 6BO?2 E4G4 IF X IS
AN ANIMAL O!R 9 SPECIES1 BO? >E ANIMALS4
,! ?+S1 !N1 : >E O!R 9 SPECIES M/ 2 9 !
SAME G5US4 ,= 0G5US ,I M1N T "O ID5TICAL
?+ : IS PR$ICAT$ ( BO? & IS DI6]5TIAT$ 9
NO M]ELY A3ID5TAL WAY1 :E!R 3CVD Z MATT]
OR O!RWISE4 ,= N ONLY M/ ! -MON NATURE
ATTA* 6! DI6]5T ?+S1 E4G4 N ONLY M/ BO?
2 ANIMALS1 B ? V ANIMAL;Y M/ AL 2 DI6]5T
= EA* 7E4G4 9 ! "O CASE EQU9;Y1 9 ! O!R
HUMAN;Y71 & S ? -MON NATURE IS
SPECIFIC,Y DI6]5T = EA* F :AT X IS =!
O!R4 ,"O1 !N1 W 2 9 VIRTUE ( XS [N
NATURE "O SORT ( ANIMAL1 &! O!R ANO!R1
E4G4 "O A HORSE &! O!R A MAN4 ,? DI6];E1
!N1 M/ 2 AN O!R;S (! G5US4 ,= ,I GIVE !
"N ( ,8DI6];E 9 ! G5US0' AN O!R;S :
MAKES ! G5US XF O!R4
  ,?1 !N1 W 2 A 3TR>IETY 7Z C 2 %[N AL
09DUC;N74 ,= ALL ?+S >E DIVID$
0OPPOSITES1 & X HAS BE5 PROV$ T 3TR>IES
>E 9 ! SAME G5US4 ,= 3TR>IETY 0 SE5 6BE
-PLETE DI6];E2 & ALL DI6];E 9 SPECIES IS
A DI6];E F "S?+ 9 "S?+2 S T ? IS ! SAME
= BO? & IS _! G5US4 7,H;E AL ALL 3TR>IES
: >E DI6]5T 9 SPECIES & N 9 G5US >E 9 !
SAME L9E ( PR$IC,N1 & O!R ?AN "O ANO!R 9
! HI<E/ DEGREE-=! DI6];E IS -PLETE-1 &
_C 2 PRES5T AL;G ) "O ANO!R47 ,! DI6];E1
!N1 IS A 3TR>IETY4
  ,?1 !N1 IS :AT X IS 6BE ,8O!R 9
SPECIES'-6H A 3TR>IETY1 2+ 9 ! SAME G5US
& 2+ 9DIVISI# 7& ^? ?+S >E ! SAME 9
SPECIES : H NO 3TR>IETY1 2+ 9DIVISI#72
WE SAY ,82+ 9DIVISI#0'1 = 9 ! PROCESS (
DIVI.N 3TR>IETIES >ISE 9 ! 9T]M$IATE
/AGES 2F WE -E 6! 9DIVISI#S4 ,EVID5TLY1
"!=E1 ) REF];E 6T : IS CALL$ ! G5US1 N"O
(! SPECIES-(-A-G5US IS EI ! SAME Z X OR
O!R ?AN X 9 SPECIES 7& ? IS FITT+2 =!
MATT] IS 9DICAT$ 0NEG,N1 &! G5US IS !
MATT] ( T ( : X IS CALL$ ! G5US1 N 9 !
S5SE 9 : WE SP1K (! G5US OR FAMILY (!
,H]ACLIDAE1 B 9 T 9 : ! G5US IS AN ELE;T
9 A ?+'S NATURE71 NOR IS X S ) REF];E
6?+S : >E N 9 ! SAME G5US1 B X W DI6] 9
G5US F !M1 & 9 SPECIES F ?+S 9 ! SAME
G5US4 ,=A ?+'S DI6];E F T F : X DI6]S 9
SPECIES M/ 2 A 3TR>IETY2 & ? 2L;GS ONLY
6?+S 9 ! SAME G5US4
                   #I
  ,"O MI<T RAISE ! "Q1 :Y WOMAN DOES N
DI6] F MAN 9 SPECIES1 :5 FEMALE & MALE
>E 3TR>Y & _! DI6];E IS A 3TR>IETY2 & :Y
A FEMALE &A MALE ANIMAL >E N DI6]5T 9
SPECIES1 ?\< ? DI6];E 2L;GS 6ANIMAL 9
VIRTUE ( XS [N NATURE1 & N Z PALE;S OR
D>K;S DOES2 BO? ,8FEMALE0' & ,8MALE0'
2L;G 6X QUA ANIMAL4 ,? "Q IS ALM ! SAME
Z ! O!R1 :Y "O 3TR>IETY MAKES ?+S DI6]5T
9 SPECIES & ANO!R DOES N1 E4G4 ,8)
FEET0' & ,8) W+S0' D1 B PALE;S & D>K;S D
N4 ,P]H X IS 2C ! =M] >E MODIFIC,NS
PECULI> 6! G5US1 &! LATT] >E LESS S4 ,&
S9CE "O ELE;T IS DEF9I;N & "O IS MATT]1
3TR>IETIES : >E 9 ! DEF9I;N MAKE A
DI6];E 9 SPECIES1 B ^? : >E 9 ! ?+ TAK5
Z 9CLUD+ XS MATT] D N MAKE "O4 ,& S
PALE;S 9 A MAN1 OR D>K;S1 DOES N MAKE
"O1 NOR IS "! A DI6];E 9 SPECIES 2T !
PALE MAN &! D>K MAN1 N EV5 IF EA* ( !M 2
DENOT$ 0"O ^W4 ,= MAN IS "H 2+ 3SID]$ ON
8 MAT]IAL SIDE1 & MATT] DOES N CR1TE A
DI6];E2 = X DOES N MAKE 9DIVIDUAL M5
SPECIES ( MAN1 ?\< ! FLE% &! B"OS ( : ?
MAN & T MAN 3SI/ >E O!R4 ,! 3CRETE ?+ IS
O!R1 B N O!R 9 SPECIES1 2C 9 ! DEF9I;N
"! IS NO 3TR>IETY4 ,? IS ! ULTIMATE
9DIVISI# K9D4 ,CALLIAS IS DEF9I;N @+
MATT]1 ! PALE MAN1 !N1 IS S AL1 2C X IS
! 9DIVIDUAL ,CALLIAS T IS PALE2 MAN1 !N1
IS PALE ONLY 9CID5T,Y4 ,NEI D A BRAZ5 &A
WOOD5 CIRCLE1 !N1 DI6] 9 SPECIES2 & IF A
BRAZ5 TRIANGLE &A WOOD5 CIRCLE DI6] 9
SPECIES1 X IS N 2C (! MATT]1 B 2C "! IS
A 3TR>IETY 9 ! DEF9I;N4 ,B DOES ! MATT]
N MAKE ?+S O!R 9 SPECIES1 :5 X IS O!R 9
A C]TA9 WAY1 OR IS "! A S5SE 9 : X DOES8
,= :Y IS ? HORSE O!R ?AN ? MAN 9
SPECIES1 AL? _! MATT] IS 9CLUD$ ) _!
DEF9I;NS8 ,D\BT.S 2C "! IS A 3TR>IETY 9
! DEF9I;N4 ,= :ILE "! IS A 3TR>IETY AL
2T PALE MAN & D>K HORSE1 & X IS A
3TR>IETY 9 SPECIES1 X DOES N DEP5D ON !
PALE;S (! "O &! D>K;S (! O!R1 S9CE EV5
IF BO? _H BE5 PALE1 YET !Y WD H BE5 O!R
9 SPECIES4 ,B MALE & FEMALE1 :ILE !Y >E
MODIFIC,NS PECULI> TO ,8ANIMAL0'1 >E S N
9 VIRTUE ( XS ESS;E B 9 ! MATT]1 IE4 !
BODY4 ,? IS :Y ! SAME SE$ 2COMES FEMALE
OR MALE 02+ ACT$ ON 9 A C]TA9 WAY4 ,WE H
/AT$1 !N1 :AT X IS 6BE O!R 9 SPECIES1 &
:Y "S ?+S DI6] 9 SPECIES & O!RS D N4
                  #AJ
  ,S9CE 3TR>IES >E O!R 9 =M1 &! P]I%A# &
! IMP]I%A# >E 3TR>IES 7= PRIV,N IS A
DET]M9ATE 9CAPAC;Y71 ! P]I%A# &!
IMP]I%A# M/ 2 DI6]5T 9 K9D4
  ,N[ S F> WE H SPOK5 (! G5]AL T]MS
!MVS1 S T X MI<T 2 ?"\ N 6BE NEC T E
IMP]I%A# ?+ %D 2 DI6]5T F E P]I%A# ?+ 9
=M1 J Z N E PALE ?+ IS DI6]5T 9 =M F E
D>K ?+4 ,=! SAME ?+ C 2 BO?1 & EV5 AT !
SAME "T IF X IS A UNIV]SAL 7E4G4 MAN C 2
BO? PALE & D>K71 & IF X IS AN 9DIVIDUAL
X C / 2 BO?2 =! SAME MAN C BE1 ?\< N AT
! SAME "T1 PALE & D>K4 ,YET PALE IS
3TR>Y 6D>K4
  ,B :ILE "S 3TR>IES 2L;G 6C]TA9 ?+S
0A3ID5T 7E4G4 BO? ^? N[ M5;N$ & _M
O!RS71 O!RS _C1 & AM;G ^! >E ,8P]I%A#0'
& ,8IMP]I%A#0'4 ,= NO?+ IS 0A3ID5T
P]I%A#4 ,= :AT IS A3ID5TAL IS CAPA# ( N
2+ PRES5T1 B P]I%A#;S IS "O (!
ATTRIBUTES T 2L;G ( NECESS;Y 6! ?+S 6:
!Y 2L;G2 OR ELSE "O &! SAME ?+ MAY 2
P]I%A# & IMP]I%A#1 IF P]I%A#;S IS CAPA#
( N 2L;G+ 6X4 ,P]I%A#;S !N M/ EI 2 !
ESS;E OR 2 PRES5T 9 ! ESS;E ( EA* P]I%A#
?+4 ,! SAME A3.T HOLDS GD = IMP]I%A#;S
AL2 = BO? >E ATTRIBUTES : >E PRES5T (
NECESS;Y4 ,! "*I/ICS1 !N1 9 RESPECT ( :
& 9 DIRECT 3SEQU;E ( : "O ?+ IS P]I%A# &
ANO!R IMP]I%A#1 >E OPPOSITE1 S T ! ?+S
M/ 2 DI6]5T 9 K9D4
  ,EVID5TLY1 !N1 "! _C 2 ,=MS S* Z "S
MA9TA91 = !N "O MAN WD 2 P]I%A# & ANO!R
IMP]I%A#4 ,YET ! ,=MS >E SD 6BE ! SAME 9
=M )! 9DIVIDUALS & N M]ELY 6H ! SAME "N2
B ?+S : DI6] 9 K9D >E F>!R A"P ?AN ^? :
DI6] 9 =M4

