         ,,*APT] ,,XI3 ,,ON ,,!
       ,,GEOLOGICAL ,,SU3ES.N ,,(
            ,,ORGANIC ,,2+S
  ,LET U N[ SEE :E!R ! S"EAL FACTS &
LAWS RELAT+ 6! GEOLOGICAL SU3ES.N (
ORGANIC 2+S A3ORD BE/ )! -MON VIEW (!
IMMUTABIL;Y ( SPECIES1 OR ) T ( _! SL[ &
GRADUAL MODIFIC,N1 "? V>I,N & NATURAL
SELEC;N4
  ,NEW SPECIES H APPE>$ V SL[LY1 "O AF
ANO!R1 BO? ON ! L& & 9 ! WAT]S4 ,LYELL
HAS %[N T X IS H>DLY POSSI# 6RESI/ !
EVID;E ON ? H1D 9 ! CASE (! S"EAL T]TI>Y
/AGES2 & E YE> T5DS 6FILL UP ! BLANKS 2T
! /AGES1 & 6MAKE ! PROPOR;N 2T ! LO/ &
EXI/+ =MS M GRADUAL4 ,9 "S (! MO/ REC5T
B$S1 ?\< UND\BT$LY ( HI< ANTIQU;Y IF
M1SUR$ 0YE>S1 ONLY "O OR TWO SPECIES >E
EXT9CT1 & ONLY "O OR TWO >E NEW1 HAV+
APPE>$ "! =! F/ "T1 EI LOC,Y1 OR1 Z F> Z
WE "K1 ON ! FACE (! E>?4 ,! SECOND>Y
=M,NS >E M BROK52 B1 Z ,BRONN HAS
REM>K$1 NEI ! APPE>.E NOR 4APPE>.E (! _M
SPECIES EMB$D$ 9 EA* =M,N HAS BE5
SIMULTANE\S4
  ,SPECIES 2L;G+ 6DI6]5T G5]A & CLASSES
H N *ANG$ AT ! SAME RATE1 OR 9 ! SAME
DEGREE4 ,9 ! OLD] T]TI>Y B$S A FEW LIV+
%ELLS MAY / 2 F.D 9 ! MID/ (A MULTITUDE
( EXT9CT =MS4 ,FALCON] HAS GIV5 A /RIK+
9/.E (A SIMIL> FACT1 = AN EXI/+
CROCODILE IS ASSOCIAT$ ) _M LO/ MAMMALS
& REPTILES 9 ! SUB-,HIMALAYAN DEPOSITS4
,! ,SILURIAN ,L+ULA DI6]S B LL F ! LIV+
SPECIES ( ? G5US2 ":AS MO/ (! O!R
,SILURIAN MOLLUSCS & ALL ! CRU/AC1NS H
*ANG$ GRTLY4 ,! PRODUC;NS (! L& SEEM 6H
*ANG$ AT A QK] RATE ?AN ^? (! SEA1 ( : A
/RIK+ 9/.E HAS BE5 OBS]V$ 9 ,SWITZ]L&4
,"! IS "S R1SON 62LIEVE T ORGANISMS HI<
9 ! SCALE1 *ANGE M QKLY ?AN ^? T >E L[3
?\< "! >E EXCEP;NS 6? RULE4 ,! AM.T (
ORGANIC *ANGE1 Z ,PICTET HAS REM>K$1 IS
N ! SAME 9 EA* SU3ESSIVE S-CALL$ =M,N4
,YET IF WE -P>E ANY B ! MO/ CLOSELY
RELAT$ =M,NS1 ALL ! SPECIES W 2 F.D 6H
"UG"O "S *ANGE4 ,:5 A SPECIES HAS ONCE
4APPE>$ F ! LACE (! E>?1 WE H NO R1SON
62LIEVE T ! SAME ID5TICAL =M "E
REAPPE>S4 ,! /R;GE/ APP>5T EXCEP;N 6?
LATT] RULE IS T (! S-CALL$ 8COLONIES0 (
,M4 ,B>R&E1 : 9TRUDE =A P]IOD 9 ! MID/ (
AN OLD] =M,N1 & !N ALL[ ! PRE-EXI/+
FAUNA 6REAPPE>2 B ,LYELL'S EXPLAN,N1
"NLY1 T X IS A CASE ( TEMPOR>Y MIGR,N F
A 4T9CT GEOGRAPHICAL PROV9CE1 SEEMS
SATISFACTORY4
  ,^! S"EAL FACTS A3ORD WELL ) \R !ORY1
: 9CLUDES NO FIX$ LAW ( DEVELOP;T1 CAUS+
ALL ! 9HABITANTS ( AN >EA 6*ANGE
ABRUPTLY1 OR SIMULTANE\SLY1 OR 6AN EQUAL
DEGREE4 ,! PROCESS ( MODIFIC,N M/ 2 SL[1
& W G5],Y A6ECT ONLY A FEW SPECIES AT !
SAME "T2 =! V>IABIL;Y ( EA* SPECIES IS
9DEP5D5T ( T ( ALL O!RS4 ,:E!R S* V>I,NS
OR 9DIVIDUAL DI6];ES Z MAY >ISE W 2
A3UMULAT$ "? NATURAL SELEC;N 9 A GRT] OR
LESS DEGREE1 ?US CAUS+ A GRT] OR LESS
AM.T ( P]MAN5T MODIFIC,N1 W DEP5D ON _M
-PLEX 3T+5CIES- ON ! V>I,NS 2+ (A
B5EFICIAL NATURE1 ON ! FREEDOM (
9T]CROSS+1 ON ! SL[LY *ANG+ PHYSICAL
3DI;NS (! C.TRY1 ON ! IMMIGR,N ( NEW
COLONI/S1 & ON ! NATURE (! O!R
9HABITANTS ) : ! V>Y+ SPECIES -E 96-
PETI;N4 ,H;E X IS 0NO M1NS SURPRIS+ T "O
SPECIES %D RETA9 ! SAME ID5TICAL =M M*
L;G] ?AN O!RS2 OR1 IF *ANG+1 %D *ANGE 9
A LESS DEGREE4 ,WE F9D SIMIL> REL,NS 2T
! EXI/+ 9HABITANTS ( 4T9CT C.TRIES2 =
9/.E1 ! L&-%ELLS & COLEOPT]\S 9SECTS (
,MADEIRA H -E 6DI6] 3SID]ABLY F _! NE>E/
ALLIES ON ! 3T95T ( ,EUROPE1 ":AS ! M>9E
%ELLS & BIRDS H REMA9$ UNALT]$4 ,WE C
P]H "U/& ! APP>5TLY QK] RATE ( *ANGE 9
T]RE/RIAL & 9 M HI<LY ORGANIS$ PRODUC;NS
-P>$ ) M>9E & L[] PRODUC;NS1 0! M -PLEX
REL,NS (! HI<] 2+S 6_! ORGANIC &
9ORGANIC 3DI;NS ( LIFE1 Z EXPLA9$ 9 A
=M] *APT]4 ,:5 _M (! 9HABITANTS ( ANY
>EA H 2COME MODIFI$ & IMPROV$1 WE C
"U/&1 ON ! PR9CIPLE ( -PETI;N1 & F !
ALL-IMPORTANT REL,NS ( ORGANISM
6ORGANISM 9 ! /RU7LE = LIFE1 T ANY =M :
DID N 2COME 9 "S DEGREE MODIFI$ &
IMPROV$1 WD 2 LIA# 6EXT]M9,N4 ,H;E WE
SEE :Y ALL ! SPECIES 9 ! SAME REGION D
AT LA/1 IF WE LOOK 6L;G 5 9T]VALS ( "T1
2COME MODIFI$1 = O!RWISE !Y WD 2COME
EXT9CT4
  ,9 MEMB]S (! SAME CLASS ! AV]AGE AM.T
( *ANGE1 DUR+ L;G & EQUAL P]IODS ( "T1
MAY1 P]H1 2 NE>LY ! SAME2 B Z ! A3UMUL,N
( 5DUR+ =M,NS1 RI* 9 FOSSILS1 DEP5DS ON
GRT MASSES ( S$I;T 2+ DEPOSIT$ ON
SUBSID+ >1S1 \R =M,NS H BE5 ALM
NECESS>ILY A3UMULAT$ AT WIDE &
IRREGUL>LY 9T]MITT5T 9T]VALS ( "T2
3SEQU5TLY ! AM.T ( ORGANIC *ANGE
EXHIBIT$ 0! FOSSILS EMB$D$ 9 3SECUTIVE
=M,NS IS N EQUAL4 ,EA* =M,N1 ON ? VIEW1
DOES N M>K A NEW & -PLETE ACT ( CRE,N1 B
ONLY AN O3A.NAL SC5E1 TAK5 ALM AT HAZ>D1
9 AN "E SL[LY *ANG+ DRAMA4
  ,WE C CLE>LY "U/& :Y A SPECIES :5 ONCE
LO/ %D N"E REAPPE>1 EV5 IF ! V SAME
3DI;NS ( LIFE1 ORGANIC & 9ORGANIC1 %D
RECUR4 ,= ?\< ! (FSPR+ ( "O SPECIES MI<T
2 ADAPT$ 7& NO D\BT ? HAS O3URR$ 9
9NUM]A# 9/.ES7 6FILL ! PLACE ( ANO!R
SPECIES 9 ! ECONOMY ( NATURE1 & ?US
SUPPLANT X2 YET ! TWO =MS- ! OLD &! NEW-
WD N 2 ID5TIC,Y ! SAME2 = BO? WD ALM
C]TA9LY 9H]IT DI6]5T "*S F _! 4T9CT
PROG5ITORS2 & ORGANISMS ALR DI6]+ WD V>Y
9 A DI6]5T MANN]4 ,= 9/.E1 X IS POSSI#1
IF ALL \R FANTAIL PIGEONS 7 DE/ROY$1 T
FANCI]S MI<T MAKE A NEW BRE$ H>DLY
4T+UI%A# F ! PRES5T BRE$2 B IF ! P>5T
ROCK-PIGEON 7 LIKEWISE DE/ROY$1 & "U
NATURE WE H E R1SON 62LIEVE T P>5T-=MS
>E G5],Y SUPPLANT$ & EXT]M9AT$ 0_!
IMPROV$ (F SPR+1 X IS 9CR$I# T A
FANTAIL1 ID5TICAL )! EXI/+ BRE$1 CD 2
RAIS$ F ANY O!R SPECIES ( PIGEON1 OR EV5
F ANY O!R WELL-E/ABLI%$ RACE (! DOME/IC
PIGEON1 =! SU3ESSIVE V>I,NS WD ALM
C]TA9LY 2 9 "S DEGREE DI6]5T1 &! NEWLY-
=M$ V>IETY WD PROBABLY 9H]IT F XS
PROG5ITOR "S "*I/IC DI6];ES4
  ,GR\PS ( SPECIES1 T IS1 G5]A &
FAMILIES1 FOLL[ ! SAME G5]AL RULES 9 _!
APPE>.E & 4APPE>.E Z D S+LE SPECIES1
*ANG+ M OR LESS QKLY1 & 9 A GRT] OR
LESS] DEGREE4 ,A GR\P1 :5 X HAS ONCE
4APPE>$1 N"E REAPPE>S2 T IS1 XS EXI/;E1
Z L;G Z X LA/S1 IS 3T9U\S4 ,I AM AW>E T
"! >E "S APP>5T EXCEP;NS 6? RULE1 B !
EXCEP;NS >E SURPRIS+LY FEW1 S FEW T ,E4
,=BES1 ,PICTET1 & ,WOODW>D 7?\< ALL
/R;GLY OPPOS$ 6S* VIEWS Z ,I MA9TA97
ADMIT XS TRU?2 &! RULE /RICTLY A3ORDS )!
!ORY4 ,= ALL ! SPECIES (! SAME GR\P1
H["E L;G X MAY H LA/$1 >E ! MODIFI$
DESC5DANTS "O F ! O!R1 & ALL F A -MON
PROG5ITOR4 ,9 ! G5US ,L+ULA1 = 9/.E1 !
SPECIES : H SU3ESSIVELY APPE>$ AT ALL
AGES M/ H BE5 3NECT$ 0AN UNBROK5 S]IES (
G5],NS1 F ! L[E/ ,SILURIAN /RATUM 6!
PRES5T "D4
  ,WE H SE5 9 ! LA/ *APT] T :OLE GR\PS (
SPECIES "S"TS FALSELY APPE> 6H BE5
ABRUPTLY DEVELOP$2 & ,I H ATTEMPT$ 6GIVE
AN EXPLAN,N ( ? FACT1 : IF TRUE WD 2
FATAL 6MY VIEWS4 ,B S* CASES >E C]TA9LY
EXCEP;NAL2 ! G5]AL RULE 2+ A GRADUAL
9CR1SE 9 NUMB]1 UNTIL ! GR\P R1*ES XS
MAXIMUM1 & !N1 SOON] OR LAT]1 A GRADUAL
DECR1SE4 ,IF ! NUMB] (! SPECIES 9CLUD$
)9 A G5US1 OR ! NUMB] (! G5]A )9 A
FAMILY1 2 REPRES5T$ 0A V]TICAL L9E (
V>Y+ ?ICK;S1 ASC5D+ "? ! SU3ESSIVE
GEOLOGICAL =M,NS1 9 : ! SPECIES >E F.D1
! L9E W "S"TS FALSELY APPE> 62G9 AT XS
L[] 5D1 N 9 A %>P PO9T1 B ABRUPTLY2 X !N
GRADU,Y ?ICK5S UPW>DS1 (T5 KEEP+ ( EQUAL
?ICK;S =A SPACE1 & ULTIMATELY ?9S \ 9 !
UPP] B$S1 M>K+ ! DECR1SE & F9AL EXT9C;N
(! SPECIES4 ,? GRADUAL 9CR1SE 9 NUMB] (!
SPECIES (A GR\P IS /RICTLY 3=MA# )!
!ORY1 =! SPECIES (! SAME G5US1 &! G5]A (
! SAME FAMILY1 C 9CR1SE ONLY SL[LY &
PROGRESSIVELY2 ! PROCESS ( MODIFIC,N &!
PRODUC;N (A NUMB] ( ALLI$ =MS NECESS>ILY
2+ A SL[ & GRADUAL PROCESS1- "O SPECIES
F/ GIV+ RISE 6TWO OR ?REE V>IETIES1 ^!
2+ SL[LY 3V]T$ 96SPECIES1 : 9 _! TURN
PRODUCE 0EQU,Y SL[ /EPS O!R V>IETIES &
SPECIES1 & S ON1 L ! BRAN*+ (A GRT TREE
F A S+LE /EM1 TILL ! GR\P 2COMES L>GE4
  ,ON ,EXT9C;N
  ,WE H Z YET ONLY SPOK5 9CID5T,Y (!
4APPE>.E ( SPECIES &( GR\PS ( SPECIES4
,ON ! !ORY ( NATURAL SELEC;N1 ! EXT9C;N
( OLD =MS &! PRODUC;N ( NEW & IMPROV$
=MS >E 9TIMATELY 3NECT$ TGR4 ,! OLD NO;N
( ALL ! 9HABITANTS (! E>? HAV+ BE5 SWEPT
AWAY 0CATA/ROPHES AT SU3ESSIVE P]IODS IS
V G5],Y GIV5 UP1 EV5 0^? GEOLOGI/S1 Z
,ELIE DE ,B1UMONT1 ,MUR*ISON1 ,B>R&E1
&C41 ^: G5]AL VIEWS WD NATUR,Y L1D !M 6?
3CLU.N4 ,ON ! 3TR>Y1 WE H E R1SON
62LIEVE1 F ! /UDY (! T]TI>Y =M,NS1 T
SPECIES & GR\PS ( SPECIES GRADU,Y
4APPE>1 "O AF ANO!R1 F/ F "O SPOT1 !N F
ANO!R1 & F9,Y F ! _W4 ,9 "S FEW CASES
H["E1 Z 0! BR1K+ ( AN IS?MUS &! 3SEQU5T
IRRUP;N (A MULTITUDE ( NEW 9HABITANTS
96AN ADJO9+ SEA1 OR 0! F9AL SUBSID;E (
AN ISL&1 ! PROCESS ( EXT9C;N MAY H BE5
RAPID4 ,BO? S+LE SPECIES & :OLE GR\PS (
SPECIES LA/ = V UNEQUAL P]IODS2 "S
GR\PS1 Z WE H SE51 H 5DUR$ F ! E>LIE/
"KN DAWN ( LIFE 6! PRES5T "D2 "S H
4APPE>$ 2F ! CLOSE (! PALAEOZOIC P]IOD4
,NO FIX$ LAW SEEMS 6DET]M9E ! L5G? ( "T
DUR+ : ANY S+LE SPECIES OR ANY S+LE G5US
5DURES4 ,"! IS R1SON 62LIEVE T ! EXT9C;N
(A :OLE GR\P ( SPECIES IS G5],Y A SL[]
PROCESS ?AN _! PRODUC;N3 IF _! APPE>.E &
4APPE>.E 2 REPRES5T$1 Z 2F1 0A V]TICAL
L9E ( V>Y+ ?ICK;S ! L9E IS F.D 6TAP] M
GRADU,Y AT XS UPP] 5D1 : M>KS ! PROGRESS
( EXT]M9,N1 ?AN AT XS L[] 5D1 : M>KS !
F/ APPE>.E &! E>LY 9CR1SE 9 NUMB] (!
SPECIES4 ,9 "S CASES1 H["E1 ! EXT]M9,N (
:OLE GR\PS1 Z ( AMMONITES1 T[>DS ! CLOSE
(! SECOND>Y P]IOD1 HAS BE5 WOND];LLY
SU454
  ,! EXT9C;N ( SPECIES HAS BE5 9VOLV$ 9
! MO/ GRATUIT\S MY/]Y4 ,"S AU?ORS H EV5
SUPPOS$ T1 Z ! 9DIVIDUAL HAS A DEF9ITE
L5G? ( LIFE1 S H SPECIES A DEF9ITE
DUR,N4 ,NO "O C H M>VELL$ M ?AN ,I H D"O
AT ! EXT9C;N ( SPECIES4 ,:5 ,I F.D 9 ,LA
,PLATA ! TOO? (A HORSE EMB$D$ )! REMA9S
( ,MA/ODON1 ,MEGA!RIUM1 ,TOXODON1 & O!R
EXT9CT MON/]S1 : ALL CO-EXI/$ ) / LIV+
%ELLS AT A V LATE GEOLOGICAL P]IOD1 ,I 0
FILL$ ) A/ONI%;T2 =1 SEE+ T ! HORSE1
S9CE XS 9TRODUC;N 0! ,SPANI>DS 96,S\?
,AM]ICA1 HAS RUN WILD OV] ! :OLE C.TRY &
HAS 9CR1S$ 9 NUMB]S AT AN UNP>ALLEL$
RATE1 ,I ASK$ MYF :AT CD S REC5TLY H
EXT]M9AT$ ! =M] HORSE "U 3DI;NS ( LIFE
APP>5TLY S FAV\RA#4 ,B MY A/ONI%;T 0
GR.D.S4 ,PROFESSOR ,[5 SOON P]CVD T !
TOO?1 ?\< S L T (! EXI/+ HORSE1 2L;G$
6AN EXT9CT SPECIES4 ,_H ? HORSE BE5 /
LIV+1 B 9 "S DEGREE R>E1 NO NATURALI/ WD
H FELT ! L1/ SURPRISE AT XS R>;Y2 = R>;Y
IS ! ATTRIBUTE (A VA/ NUMB] ( SPECIES (
ALL CLASSES1 9 ALL C.TRIES4 ,IF WE ASK
\RVS :Y ? OR T SPECIES IS R>E1 WE ANSW]
T "S?+ IS UNFAV\RA# 9 XS 3DI;NS ( LIFE2
B :AT T "S?+ IS WE C H>DLY "E TELL4 ,ON
! SUPPOSI;N (! FOSSIL HORSE / EXI/+ Z A
R>E SPECIES1 WE MI<T H FELT C]TA91 F !
ANALOGY ( ALL O!R MAMMALS1 EV5 (! SL[-
BRE$+ ELEPHANT1 & F ! HI/ORY (!
NATURALIS,N (! DOME/IC HORSE 9 ,S\?
,AM]ICA1 T "U M FAV\RA# 3DI;NS X WD 9 A
V FEW YE>S H /OCK$ ! :OLE 3T95T4 ,B WE
CD N H TOLD :AT ! UNFAV\RA# 3DI;NS 7 :
*ECK$ XS 9CR1SE1 :E!R "S "O OR S"EAL
3T+5CIES1 & AT :AT P]IOD (! HORSE'S
LIFE1 & 9 :AT DEGREE !Y S"E,Y ACT$4 ,IF
! 3DI;NS _H G"O ON1 H["E SL[LY1 2COM+
LESS & LESS FAV\RA#1 WE ASSUR$LY %D N H
P]CVD ! FACT1 YET ! FOSSIL HORSE WD
C]TA9LY H 2COME R>] & R>]1 & F9,Y
EXT9CT2- XS PLACE 2+ SEIZ$ ON 0"S M
SU3ESS;L -PETITOR4
  ,X IS MO/ DI6ICULT ALW 6REMEMB] T !
9CR1SE ( E CR1TURE IS 3/ANTLY 2+ *ECK$
0UNP]CVD HO/ILE AG5CIES2 & T ^! SAME
UNP]CVD AG5CIES >E AMPLY SU6ICI5T 6CAUSE
R>;Y1 & F9,Y EXT9C;N4 ,S LL IS ? SUBJECT
"U/OOD1 T ,I H HE>D SURPRISE REP1T$LY
EXPRESS$ AT S* GRT MON/]S Z ! ,MA/ODON &
! M ANCI5T D9OSAURIANS HAV+ 2COME
EXT9CT2 Z IF M]E BODILY /R5G? GAVE
VICTORY 9 ! BATTLE ( LIFE4 ,M]E SIZE1 ON
! 3TR>Y1 WD 9 "S CASES DET]M9E1 Z HAS
BE5 REM>K$ 0,[51 QK] EXT]M9,N F ! GRT]
AM.T ( REQUISITE FOOD4 ,2F MAN 9HABIT$
,9DIA OR ,AFRICA1 "S CAUSE M/ H *ECK$ !
3T9U$ 9CR1SE (! EXI/+ ELEPHANT4 ,A HI<LY
CAPA# JUDGE1 ,DR4 ,FALCON]1 2LIEVES T X
IS *IEFLY 9SECTS :1 F 9CESSANTLY H>ASS+
& W1K5+ ! ELEPHANT 9 ,9DIA1 *ECK XS
9CR1SE2 & ? 0 ,BRUCE'S 3CLU.N ) RESPECT
6! ,AFRICAN ELEPHANT 9 ,ABYSS9IA4 ,X IS
C]TA9 T 9SECTS & BLOODSUCK+ BATS DET]M9E
! EXI/;E (! L>G] NATURALIZ$ QUADRUP$S 9
S"EAL "PS ( ,S4 ,AM]ICA4
  ,WE SEE 9 _M CASES 9 ! M REC5T T]TI>Y
=M,NS1 T R>;Y PREC$ES EXT9C;N2 & WE "K T
? HAS BE5 ! PROGRESS ( EV5TS ) ^?
ANIMALS : H BE5 EXT]M9AT$1 EI LOC,Y OR
:OLLY1 "? MAN'S AG5CY4 ,I MAY REP1T :AT
,I PUBLI%$ 9 #AHDE1 "NLY1 T 6ADMIT T
SPECIES G5],Y 2COME R>E 2F !Y 2COME
EXT9CT- 6FEEL NO SURPRISE AT ! R>;Y (A
SPECIES1 & YET 6M>VEL GRTLY :5 ! SPECIES
C1SES 6EXI/1 IS M* ! SAME Z 6ADMIT T
SICK;S 9 ! 9DIVIDUAL IS ! =ERUNN] ( D1?-
6FEEL NO SURPRISE AT SICK;S1 B1 :5 !
SICK MAN DIES1 6WOND] & 6SUSPECT T HE
DI$ 0"S DE$ ( VIOL;E4
  ,! !ORY ( NATURAL SELEC;N IS GR.D$ ON
! 2LIEF T EA* NEW V>IETY & ULTIMATELY
EA* NEW SPECIES1 IS PRODUC$ & MA9TA9$
0HAV+ "S ADVANTAGE OV] ^? ) : X -ES 96-
PETI;N2 &! 3SEQU5T EXT9C;N (! LESS-
FAV\R$ =MS ALM 9EVITABLY FOLL[S4 ,X IS !
SAME ) \R DOME/IC PRODUC;NS2 :5 A NEW &
SLI<TLY IMPROV$ V>IETY HAS BE5 RAIS$1 X
AT F/ SUPPLANTS ! LESS IMPROV$ V>IETIES
9 ! SAME NEI<B\RHOOD2 :5 M* IMPROV$ X IS
TRANSPORT$ F> & NE>1 L \R %ORT-HORN
CATTLE1 & TAKES ! PLACE ( O!R BRE$S 9
O!R C.TRIES4 ,?US ! APPE>.E ( NEW =MS &!
4APPE>.E ( OLD =MS1 BO? ^? NATUR,Y & ^?
>TIFICI,Y PRODUC$1 >E B.D TGR4 ,9
FL\RI%+ GR\PS1 ! NUMB] ( NEW SPECIFIC
=MS : H BE5 PRODUC$ )9 A GIV5 "T HAS AT
"S P]IODS PROBABLY BE5 GRT] ?AN ! NUMB]
(! OLD SPECIFIC =MS : H BE5 EXT]M9AT$2 B
WE "K T SPECIES H N G"O ON 9DEF9ITELY
9CR1S+1 AT L1/ DUR+ ! LAT] GEOLOGICAL
EPO*S1 S T1 LOOK+ 6LAT] "TS1 WE MAY
2LIEVE T ! PRODUC;N ( NEW =MS HAS CAUS$
! EXT9C;N ( AB ! SAME NUMB] ( OLD =MS4
  ,! -PETI;N W G5],Y 2 MO/ SEV]E1 Z
=M]LY EXPLA9$ & ILLU/RAT$ 0EXAMPLES1 2T
! =MS : >E MO/ L EA* O!R 9 ALL RESPECTS4
,H;E ! IMPROV$ & MODIFI$ DESC5DANTS (A
SPECIES W G5],Y CAUSE ! EXT]M9,N (!
P>5T-SPECIES2 & IF _M NEW =MS H BE5
DEVELOP$ F ANY "O SPECIES1 ! NE>E/
ALLIES ( T SPECIES1 I4E4 ! SPECIES (!
SAME G5US1 W 2 ! MO/ LIA# 6EXT]M9,N4
,?US1 Z ,I 2LIEVE1 A NUMB] ( NEW SPECIES
DESC5D$ F "O SPECIES1 T IS A NEW G5US1
-ES 6SUPPLANT AN OLD G5US1 2L;G+ 6! SAME
FAMILY4 ,B X M/ (T5 H HAPP5$ T A NEW
SPECIES 2L;G+ 6"S "O GR\P HAS SEIZ$ ON !
PLACE O3UPI$ 0A SPECIES 2L;G+ 6A 4T9CT
GR\P1 & ?US H CAUS$ XS EXT]M9,N4 ,IF _M
ALLI$ =MS 2 DEVELOP$ F ! SU3ESS;L
9TRUD]1 _M W H 6YIELD _! PLACES2 & X W
G5],Y 2 ! ALLI$ =MS1 : W SU6] F "S
9H]IT$ 9F]IOR;Y 9 -MON4 ,B :E!R X 2
SPECIES 2L;G+ 6! SAME OR 6A 4T9CT CLASS1
: H YIELD$ _! PLACES 6O!R MODIFI$ &
IMPROV$ SPECIES1 A FEW (! SU6]]S MAY (T5
2 PRES]V$ =A L;G "T1 F 2+ FITT$ 6"S
PECULI> L9E ( LIFE1 OR F 9HABIT+ "S
4TANT & ISOLAT$ /,N1 ": !Y W H ESCAP$
SEV]E -PETI;N4 ,= 9/.E1 "S SPECIES (
,TRIGONIA1 A GRT G5US ( %ELLS 9 !
SECOND>Y =M,NS1 SURVIVE 9 ! ,AU/RALIAN
S1S2 &A FEW MEMB]S (! GRT & ALM EXT9CT
GR\P ( GANOID FI%ES / 9HABIT \R FRE%
WAT]S4 ,"!=E ! UTT] EXT9C;N (A GR\P IS
G5],Y1 Z WE H SE51 A SL[] PROCESS ?AN XS
PRODUC;N4
  ,) RESPECT 6! APP>5TLY SU45 EXT]M9,N (
:OLE FAMILIES OR ORD]S1 Z ( TRILOBITES
AT ! CLOSE (! PALAEOZOIC P]IOD &(
AMMONITES AT ! CLOSE (! SECOND>Y P]IOD1
WE M/ REMEMB] :AT HAS BE5 ALR SD ON !
PROBA# WIDE 9T]VALS ( "T 2T \R 3SECUTIVE
=M,NS2 & 9 ^! 9T]VALS "! MAY H BE5 M*
SL[ EXT]M9,N4 ,MOREOV]1 :51 0SU45
IMMIGR,N OR 0UNUSU,Y RAPID DEVELOP;T1 _M
SPECIES (A NEW GR\P H TAK5 POSSES.N ( AN
>EA1 _M (! OLD] SPECIES W H BE5
EXT]M9AT$ 9 A CORRESPOND+LY RAPID MANN]2
&! =MS : ?US YIELD _! PLACES W -MONLY 2
ALLI$1 = !Y W P>TAKE (! SAME 9F]IOR;Y 9
-MON4
  ,?US1 Z X SEEMS 6ME1 ! MANN] 9 : S+LE
SPECIES & :OLE GR\PS ( SPECIES 2COME
EXT9CT A3ORDS WELL )! !ORY ( NATURAL
SELEC;N4 ,WE NE$ N M>VEL AT EXT9C;N2 IF
WE M/ M>VEL1 LET X 2 AT \R [N PRESUMP;N
9 IMAG9+ =A MO;T T WE "U/& ! _M -PLEX
3T+5CIES ON : ! EXI/;E ( EA* SPECIES
DEP5DS4 ,IF WE =GET = AN 9/ANT T EA*
SPECIES T5DS 69CR1SE 9ORD9ATELY1 & T "S
*ECK IS ALW 9 AC;N1 YET SELDOM P]CVD 0U1
! :OLE ECONOMY ( NATURE W 2 UTT]LY
OBSCUR$4 ,:5"E WE C PRECISELY SAY :Y ?
SPECIES IS M ABUNDANT 9 9DIVIDUALS ?AN
T2 :Y ? SPECIES & N ANO!R C 2 NATURALIS$
9 A GIV5 C.TRY2 !N1 & N UNTIL !N1 WE MAY
JU/LY FEEL SURPRISE :Y WE _C A3.T =!
EXT9C;N ( ANY "PICUL> SPECIES OR GR\P (
SPECIES4
  ,ON ! ,=MS ( ,LIFE *ANG+ ALM
SIMULTANE\SLY "?\T ! ,_W
  ,SC>CELY ANY PALAEONTOLOGICAL 4COV]Y
IS M /RIK+ ?AN ! FACT T ! =MS ( LIFE
*ANGE ALM SIMULTANE\SLY "?\T ! _W4 ,?US
\R ,EUROP1N ,*ALK =M,N C 2 RECOGNIS$ 9
_M 4TANT REGIONS1 "U ! MO/ DI6]5T
CLIMATES1 ": N A FRAG;T (! M9]AL *ALK XF
C 2 F.D2 "NLY 9 ,NOR? ,AM]ICA1 9
EQUATORIAL ,S\? ,AM]ICA1 9 ,TI]RA DEL
,FUEGO1 AT ! ,CAPE ( ,GD ,HOPE1 & 9 !
P59SULA ( ,9DIA4 ,= AT ^! 4TANT PO9TS1 !
ORGANIC REMA9S 9 C]TA9 B$S PRES5T AN
UNMISTAKA# RESEMBL.E 6^? (! ,*ALK4 ,X IS
N T ! SAME SPECIES >E MET )2 = 9 "S
CASES N "O SPECIES IS ID5TIC,Y ! SAME1 B
!Y 2L;G 6! SAME FAMILIES1 G5]A1 & SEC;NS
( G5]A1 & "S"TS >E SIMIL>LY "*IS$ 9 S*
TRIFL+ PO9TS Z M]E SUP]FICIAL SCULPTURE4
,MOREOV]1 O!R =MS1 : >E N F.D 9 ! ,*ALK
( ,EUROPE1 B : O3UR 9 ! =M,NS EI ABV OR
2L1 O3UR 9 ! SAME ORD] AT ^! 4TANT PO9TS
(! _W4 ,9 ! S"EAL SU3ESSIVE PALAEOZOIC
=M,NS ( ,RUSSIA1 ,WE/]N ,EUROPE1 & ,NOR?
,AM]ICA1 A SIMIL> P>ALLELISM 9 ! =MS (
LIFE HAS BE5 OBS]V$ 0S"EAL AU?ORS2 S X
IS1 AC 6,LYELL1 )! ,EUROP1N & ,NOR?
,AM]ICAN T]TI>Y DEPOSITS4 ,EV5 IF ! FEW
FOSSIL SPECIES : >E -MON 6! ,OLD & ,NEW
,_WS 7 KEPT :OLLY \ ( VIEW1 ! G5]AL
P>ALLELISM 9 ! SU3ESSIVE =MS ( LIFE1 9 !
PALAEOZOIC & T]TI>Y /AGES1 WD / 2
MANIFE/1 &! S"EAL =M,NS CD 2 EASILY
CORRELAT$4
  ,^! OBS]V,NS1 H["E1 RELATE 6! M>9E
9HABITANTS (! _W3 WE H N SU6ICI5T DATA
6JUDGE :E!R ! PRODUC;NS (! L& &( FRE%
WAT] AT 4TANT PO9TS *ANGE 9 ! SAME
P>ALLEL MANN]4 ,WE MAY D\BT :E!R !Y H
?US *ANG$3 IF ! ,MEGA!RIUM1 ,MYLODON1
,MACRAU*5IA1 & ,TOXODON _H BE5 BR"\
6,EUROPE F ,LA ,PLATA1 )\T ANY 9=M,N 9
REG>D 6_! GEOLOGICAL POSI;N1 NO "O WD H
SUSPECT$ T !Y _H CO-EXI/$ ) S1%ELLS ALL
/ LIV+2 B Z ^! ANOMAL\S MON/]S CO-EXI/$
)! MA/ODON & HORSE1 X MI<T AT L1/ H BE5
9F]R$ T !Y _H LIV$ DUR+ "O (! LAT]
T]TI>Y /AGES4
  ,:5 ! M>9E =MS ( LIFE >E SPOK5 ( Z
HAV+ *ANG$ SIMULTANE\SLY "?\T ! _W1 X M/
N 2 SUPPOS$ T ? EXPRES.N RELATES 6! SAME
YE>1 OR 6! SAME C5TURY1 OR EV5 T X HAS A
V /RICT GEOLOGICAL S5SE2 = IF ALL ! M>9E
ANIMALS N[ LIV+ 9 ,EUROPE1 & ALL ^? T
LIV$ 9 ,EUROPE DUR+ ! PLEI/OC5E P]IOD 7A
V REMOTE P]IOD Z M1SUR$ 0YE>S1 9CLUD+ !
:OLE GLACIAL EPO*7 7 -P>$ ) ^? N[ EXI/+
9 ,S\? ,AM]ICA OR 9 ,AU/RALIA1 ! MO/
SKIL;L NATURALI/ WD H>DLY 2 A# 6SAY :E!R
! PRES5T OR ! PLEI/OC5E 9HABITANTS (
,EUROPE RESEM#D MO/ CLOSELY ^? (! S\!RN
HEMISPH]E4 ,S1 AG1 S"EAL HI<LY -PET5T
OBS]V]S MA9TA9 T ! EXI/+ PRODUC;NS (!
,UNIT$ ,/ATES >E M CLOSELY RELAT$ 6^? :
LIV$ 9 ,EUROPE DUR+ C]TA9 LATE T]TI>Y
/AGES1 ?AN 6! PRES5T 9HABITANTS (
,EUROPE2 & IF ? 2 S1 X IS EVID5T T
FOSSILIF]\S B$S N[ DEPOSIT$ ON ! %ORES (
,NOR? ,AM]ICA WD "HAF 2 LIA# 6BE CLASS$
) "S:AT OLD] ,EUROP1N B$S4 ,N"E!.S1
LOOK+ 6A REMOTELY FUTURE EPO*1 "! C 2 LL
D\BT T ALL ! M MOD]N M>9E =M,NS1 "NLY1 !
UPP] PLIOC5E1 ! PLEI/OC5E & /RICTLY
MOD]N B$S ( ,EUROPE1 ,NOR? & ,S\?
,AM]ICA1 & ,AU/RALIA1 F 3TA9+ FOSSIL
REMA9S 9 "S DEGREE ALLI$1 & F N 9CLUD+
^? =MS : >E F.D ONLY 9 ! OLD] "ULY+
DEPOSITS1 WD 2 CORRECTLY RANK$ Z
SIMULTANE\S 9 A GEOLOGICAL S5SE4
  ,! FACT (! =MS ( LIFE *ANG+
SIMULTANE\SLY1 9 ! ABV L>GE S5SE1 AT
4TANT "PS (! _W1 HAS GRTLY /RUCK ^!
ADMIRA# OBS]V]S1 ,,MM4 DE ,V]NEUIL &
D',>*IAE4 ,AF REF]R+ 6! P>ALLELISM (!
PALAEOZOIC =MS ( LIFE 9 V>I\S "PS (
,EUROPE1 !Y ADD1 8,IF1 /RUCK 0? /RANGE
SEQU;E1 WE TURN \R ATT5;N 6,NOR?
,AM]ICA1 & "! 4COV] A S]IES ( ANALOG\S
PH5OM5A1 X W APPE> C]TA9 T ALL ^!
MODIFIC,NS ( SPECIES1 _! EXT9C;N1 &!
9TRODUC;N ( NEW "OS1 _C 2 [+ 6M]E *ANGES
9 M>9E CURR5TS OR O!R CAUSES M OR LESS
LOCAL & TEMPOR>Y1 B DEP5D ON G5]AL LAWS
: GOV]N ! :OLE ANIMAL K+DOM40 ,M4 ,B>R&E
HAS MADE =CI# REM>KS 6PRECISELY ! SAME
E6ECT4 ,X IS1 9DE$1 Q FUTILE 6LOOK
6*ANGES ( CURR5TS1 CLIMATE1 OR O!R
PHYSICAL 3DI;NS1 Z ! CAUSE ( ^! GRT
MUT,NS 9 ! =MS ( LIFE "?\T ! _W1 "U !
MO/ DI6]5T CLIMATES4 ,WE M/1 Z ,B>R&E
HAS REM>K$1 LOOK 6"S SPECIAL LAW4 ,WE %
SEE ? M CLE>LY :5 WE TR1T (! PRES5T
4TRIBU;N ( ORGANIC 2+S1 & F9D H[ SLI<T
IS ! REL,N 2T ! PHYSICAL 3DI;NS ( V>I\S
C.TRIES &! NATURE ( _! 9HABITANTS4
  ,? GRT FACT (! P>ALLEL SU3ES.N (! =MS
( LIFE "?\T ! _W1 IS EXPLICA# ON ! !ORY
( NATURAL SELEC;N4 ,NEW SPECIES >E =M$
0HAV+ "S ADVANTAGE OV] OLD] =MS2 &! =MS1
: >E ALR DOM9ANT1 OR H "S ADVANTAGE OV]
! O!R =MS 9 _! [N C.TRY1 GIVE BIR? 6!
GRTE/ NUMB] ( NEW V>IETIES OR 9CIPI5T
SPECIES4 ,WE H 4T9CT EVID;E ON ? H1D1 9
! PLANTS : >E DOM9ANT1 T IS1 : >E -MONE/
& MO/ WIDELY DI6US$1 PRODUC+ ! GRTE/
NUMB] ( NEW V>IETIES4 ,X IS AL NATURAL T
! DOM9ANT1 V>Y+1 & F>-SPR1D+ SPECIES1 :
H ALR 9VAD$ 6A C]TA9 EXT5T ! T]RITORIES
( O!R SPECIES1 %D 2 ^? : WD H ! BE/ *.E
( SPR1D+ / FUR!R1 &( GIV+ RISE 9 NEW
C.TRIES 6O!R NEW V>IETIES & SPECIES4 ,!
PROCESS ( DI6U.N WD (T5 2 V SL[1 DEP5D+
ON CLIMATAL & GEOGRAPHICAL *ANGES1 ON
/RANGE A3ID5TS1 & ON ! GRADUAL
A3LIMATIS,N ( NEW SPECIES 6! V>I\S
CLIMATES "? : !Y MI<T H 6PASS1 B 9 !
C\RSE ( "T ! DOM9ANT =MS WD G5],Y SU3E$
9 SPR1D+ & WD ULTIMATELY PREVAIL4 ,!
DI6U.N WD1 X IS PROBA#1 2 SL[] )!
T]RE/RIAL 9HABITANTS ( 4T9CT 3T95TS ?AN
)! M>9E 9HABITANTS (! 3T9U\S SEA4 ,WE
MI<T "!=E EXPECT 6F9D1 Z WE D F9D1 A
LESS /RICT DEGREE ( P>ALLELISM 9 !
SU3ES.N (! PRODUC;NS (! L& ?AN ) ^? (!
SEA4
  ,?US1 Z X SEEMS 6ME1 ! P>ALLEL1 &1
TAK5 9 A L>GE S5SE1 SIMULTANE\S1 SU3ES.N
(! SAME =MS ( LIFE "?\T ! _W1 A3ORDS
WELL )! PR9CIPLE ( NEW SPECIES HAV+ BE5
=M$ 0DOM9ANT SPECIES SPR1D+ WIDELY &
V>Y+2 ! NEW SPECIES ?US PRODUC$ 2+ !MVS
DOM9ANT1 [+ 6_! HAV+ _H "S ADVANTAGE OV]
_! ALR DOM9ANT P>5TS1 Z WELL Z OV] O!R
SPECIES1 & AG SPR1D+1 V>Y+1 & PRODUC+
NEW =MS4 ,! OLD =MS : >E B1T5 & : YIELD
_! PLACES 6! NEW & VICTORI\S =MS1 W
G5],Y 2 ALLI$ 9 GR\PS1 F 9H]IT+ "S
9F]IOR;Y 9 -MON2 & "!=E1 Z NEW & IMPROV$
GR\PS SPR1D "?\T ! _W1 OLD GR\PS 4APPE>
F ! _W2 &! SU3ES.N ( =MS "EY": T5DS
6CORRESPOND BO? 9 _! F/ APPE>.E & F9AL
4APPE>.E4
  ,"! IS "O O!R REM>K 3NECT$ ) ? SUBJECT
WOR? MAK+4 ,I H GIV5 MY R1SONS = 2LIEV+
T MO/ ( \R GRT =M,NS1 RI* 9 FOSSILS1 7
DEPOSIT$ DUR+ P]IODS ( SUBSID;E2 & T
BLANK 9T]VALS ( VA/ DUR,N1 Z F> Z
FOSSILS >E 3C]N$1 O3URR$ DUR+ ! P]IODS
:5 ! B$ (! SEA 0 EI /,N>Y OR RIS+1 &
LIKEWISE :5 S$I;T 0 N ?R[N D[N QKLY 5
6EMB$ & PRES]VE ORGANIC REMA9S4 ,DUR+ ^!
L;G & BLANK 9T]VALS ,I SUPPOSE T !
9HABITANTS ( EA* REGION "UW5T A 3SID]A#
AM.T ( MODIFIC,N & EXT9C;N1 & T "! 0 M*
MIGR,N F O!R "PS (! _W4 ,Z WE H R1SON
62LIEVE T L>GE >1S >E A6ECT$ 0! SAME
MOVE;T1 X IS PROBA# T /RICTLY
3TEMPORANE\S =M,NS H (T5 BE5 A3UMULAT$
OV] V WIDE SPACES 9 ! SAME QU>T] (! _W2
B WE >E V F> F HAV+ ANY "R 63CLUDE T ?
HAS 9V>IABLY BE5 ! CASE1 & T L>GE >1S H
9V>IABLY BE5 A6ECT$ 0! SAME MOVE;TS4 ,:5
TWO =M,NS H BE5 DEPOSIT$ 9 TWO REGIONS
DUR+ NE>LY1 B N EXACTLY1 ! SAME P]IOD1
WE %D F9D 9 BO?1 F ! CAUSES EXPLA9$ 9 !
=EGO+ P>AGRAPHS1 ! SAME G5]AL SU3ES.N 9
! =MS ( LIFE2 B ! SPECIES WD N EXACTLY
CORRESPOND2 = "! W H BE5 A LL M "T 9 !
"O REGION ?AN 9 ! O!R = MODIFIC,N1
EXT9C;N1 & IMMIGR,N4
  ,I SUSPECT T CASES ( ? NATURE O3UR 9
,EUROPE4 ,MR4 ,PRE/WI*1 9 8 ADMIRA#
,MEMOIRS ON ! EOC5E DEPOSITS ( ,5GL& &
,FR.E1 IS A# 6DRAW A CLOSE G5]AL
P>ALLELISM 2T ! SU3ESSIVE /AGES 9 ! TWO
C.TRIES2 B :5 HE -P>ES C]TA9 /AGES 9
,5GL& ) ^? 9 ,FR.E1 AL? HE F9DS 9 BO? A
CURI\S A3ORD.E 9 ! NUMB]S (! SPECIES
2L;G+ 6! SAME G5]A1 YET ! SPECIES !MVS
DI6] 9 A V1 DI6ICULT 6A3.T =1 3SID]+ !
PROXIM;Y (! TWO >1S1- UN.S1 9DE$1 X 2
ASSUM$ T AN IS?MUS SEP>AT$ TWO S1S
9HABIT$ 04T9CT1 B 3TEMPORANE\S1 FAUNAS4
,LYELL HAS MADE SIMIL> OBS]V,NS ON "S (!
LAT] T]TI>Y =M,NS4 ,B>R&E1 AL1 %[S T "!
IS A /RIK+ G5]AL P>ALLELISM 9 !
SU3ESSIVE ,SILURIAN DEPOSITS ( ,BOHEMIA
& ,SC&9AVIA2 N"E!.S HE F9DS A SURPRIS+
AM.T ( DI6];E 9 ! SPECIES4 ,IF ! S"EAL
=M,NS 9 ^! REGIONS H N BE5 DEPOSIT$ DUR+
! SAME EXACT P]IODS1- A =M,N 9 "O REGION
(T5 CORRESPOND+ )A BLANK 9T]VAL 9 !
O!R1- & IF 9 BO? REGIONS ! SPECIES H G"O
ON SL[LY *ANG+ DUR+ ! A3UMUL,N (! S"EAL
=M,NS & DUR+ ! L;G 9T]VALS ( "T 2T !M2 9
? CASE ! S"EAL =M,NS 9 ! TWO REGIONS CD
2 >RANG$ 9 ! SAME ORD]1 9 A3ORD.E )!
G5]AL SU3ES.N (! =MS ( LIFE1 &! ORD] WD
FALSELY APPE> 6BE /RICTLY P>ALLEL2
N"E!.S ! SPECIES WD N 2 ALL ! SAME 9 !
APP>5TLY CORRESPOND+ /AGES 9 ! TWO
REGIONS4
  ,ON ! ,A69ITIES ( ,EXT9CT ,SPECIES
6EA* O!R1 & 6,LIV+ ,=MS
  ,LET U N[ LOOK 6! MUTUAL A69ITIES (
EXT9CT & LIV+ SPECIES4 ,ALL FALL 96A FEW
GR& CLASSES2 & ? FACT IS ONCE EXPLA9$ ON
! PR9CIPLE ( DESC5T4 ,! M ANCI5T ANY =M
IS1 ! M1 Z A G5]AL RULE1 X DI6]S F LIV+
=MS4 ,B1 Z ,BUCKL& L;G AGO REM>K$1
EXT9CT SPECIES C ALL 2 CLASS$ EI 9 /
EXI/+ GR\PS1 OR 2T !M4 ,T ! EXT9CT =MS (
LIFE HELP 6FILL UP ! 9T]VALS 2T EXI/+
G5]A1 FAMILIES1 & ORD]S1 IS C]TA9LY
TRUE2 B Z ? /ATE;T HAS (T5 BE5 IGNOR$ OR
EV5 D5I$1 X MAY 2 WELL 6MAKE "S REM>KS
ON ? SUBJECT1 & 6GIVE "S 9/.ES4 ,IF WE
3F9E \R ATT5;N EI 6! LIV+ OR 6! EXT9CT
SPECIES (! SAME CLASS1 ! S]IES IS F>
LESS P]FECT ?AN IF WE -B9E BO? 96"O
G5]AL SY/EM4 ,9 ! WRIT+S ( ,PROFESSOR
,[5 WE 3T9U,Y MEET )! EXPRES.N (
G5]ALIS$ =MS1 Z APPLI$ 6EXT9CT ANIMALS2
& 9 ! WRIT+S ( ,AGASSIZ1 ( PROPHETIC OR
SYN!TIC TYPES2 & ^! T]MS IMPLY T S* =MS
>E 9 FACT 9T]M$IATE OR 3NECT+ L9KS4
,ANO!R 4T+UI%$ PALAEONTOLOGI/1 ,M4
,GAUDRY1 HAS %[N 9 ! MO/ /RIK+ MANN] T
_M (! FOSSIL MAMMALS 4COV]$ 0HM 9
,ATTICA S]VE 6BR1K D[N ! 9T]VALS 2T
EXI/+ G5]A4 ,CUVI] RANK$ ! RUM9ANTS &
PA*YD]MS Z TWO (! MO/ 4T9CT ORD]S (
MAMMALS3 B S _M FOSSIL L9KS H BE5
45TOMB$ T ,[5 HAS _H 6ALT] ! :OLE
CLASSIFIC,N1 & HAS PLAC$ C]TA9 PA*YD]MS
9 ! SAME SUB-ORD] ) RUM9ANTS2 = EXAMPLE1
HE 4SOLVES 0GRAD,NS ! APP>5TLY WIDE
9T]VAL 2T ! PIG &! CAMEL4 ,! ,UNGULATA
OR HO($ QUADRUP$S >E N[ DIVID$ 96! EV5-
TO$ OR ODD-TO$ DIVI.NS2 B ! ,MAERAU*5IA
( ,S4 ,AM]ICA 3NECTS 6A C]TA9 EXT5T ^!
TWO GR& DIVI.NS4 ,NO "O W D5Y T !
,HIPP>ION IS 9T]M$IATE 2T ! EXI/+ HORSE
& C]TA9 OLD] UNGULATE =MS4 ,:AT A
WOND];L 3NECT+ L9K 9 ! *A9 ( MAMMALS IS
! ,TYPO!RIUM F ,S4 ,AM]ICA1 Z ! "N GIV5
6X 0,PROFESSOR ,G]VAIS EXPRESSES1 & : _C
2 PLAC$ 9 ANY EXI/+ ORD]4 ,! ,SIR5IA =M
A V 4T9CT GR\P ( MAMMALS1 & "O (! MO/
REM>KA# PECULI>ITIES 9 ! EXI/+ DUG;G &
LA;T9 IS ! 5TIRE ABS;E ( H9D LIMBS )\T
EV5 A RUDI;T 2+ LEFT2 B ! EXT9CT
,HALI!RIUM _H1 AC 6,PROFESSOR ,FL[]1 AN
OSSIFI$ ?I<B"O 8>TICULAT$ 6A WELL-DEF9$
ACETABULUM 9 ! PELVIS10 & X ?US MAKES "S
APPROA* 6ORD9>Y HO($ QUADRUP$S1 6: !
,SIR5IA >E 9 O!R RESPECTS ALLI$4 ,!
CETAC1NS OR :ALES >E WIDELY DI6]5T F ALL
O!R MAMMALS B ! T]TI>Y ,ZEUGLODON &
,SQUALODON1 : H BE5 PLAC$ 0"S NATURALI/S
9 AN ORD] 0!MVS1 >E 3SID]$ 0,PROFESSOR
,HUXLEY 6BE UND\BT$LY CETAC1NS1 8&
63/ITUTE 3NECT+ L9KS )! AQUATIC
C>NIVORA40
  ,EV5 ! WIDE 9T]VAL 2T BIRDS & REPTILES
HAS BE5 %[N 0! NATURALI/ J QUOT$ 6BE
"PI,Y BRIDG$ OV] 9 ! MO/ UNEXPECT$
MANN]1 ON ! "O H&1 0! O/RI* & EXT9CT
,>*EOPT]YX1 & ON ! O!R H&1 0!
,-PSOGNA?US1 "O (! D9OSAURIANS- T GR\P :
9CLUDES ! MO/ GIGANTIC ( ALL T]RE/RIAL
REPTILES4 ,TURN+ 6! ,9V]TEBRATA1 ,B>R&E
ASS]TS1 A HI<] AU?OR;Y CD N 2 "ND1 T HE
IS E "D TAU<T T1 AL? PALAEOZOIC C
C]TA9LY 2 CLASS$ "U EXI/+ GR\PS1 YET T
AT ? ANCI5T P]IOD ! GR\PS 7 N S 4T9CTLY
SEP>AT$ F EA* O!R Z !Y N[ >E4
  ,"S WRIT]S H OBJECT$ 6ANY EXT9CT
SPECIES1 OR GR\P ( SPECIES1 2+ 3SID]$ Z
9T]M$IATE 2T ANY TWO LIV+ SPECIES1 OR
GR\PS ( SPECIES4 ,IF 0? T]M X IS M1NT T
AN EXT9CT =M IS DIRECTLY 9T]M$IATE 9 ALL
XS "*S 2T TWO LIV+ =MS OR GR\PS1 !
OBJEC;N IS PROBABLY VALID4 ,B 9 A
NATURAL CLASSIFIC,N _M FOSSIL SPECIES
C]TA9LY /& 2T LIV+ SPECIES1 & "S EXT9CT
G5]A 2T LIV+ G5]A1 EV5 2T G5]A 2L;G+
64T9CT FAMILIES4 ,! MO/ -MON CASE1
ESPECI,Y ) RESPECT 6V 4T9CT GR\PS1 S* Z
FI% & REPTILES1 SEEMS 6BE1 T1 SUPPOS+ !M
6BE 4T+UI%$ AT ! PRES5T "D 0A SCORE (
"*S1 ! ANCI5T MEMB]S >E SEP>AT$ 0A "S:AT
LESS] NUMB] ( "*S2 S T ! TWO GR\PS =M]LY
MADE A "S:AT NE>] APPROA* 6EA* O!R ?AN
!Y N[ D4
  ,X IS A -MON 2LIEF T ! M ANCI5T A =M
IS1 0S M* ! M X T5DS 63NECT 0"S ( XS "*S
GR\PS N[ WIDELY SEP>AT$ F EA* O!R4 ,?
REM>K NO D\BT M/ 2 RE/RICT$ 6^? GR\PS :
H "UG"O M* *ANGE 9 ! C\RSE ( GEOLOGICAL
AGES2 & X WD 2 DI6ICULT 6PROVE ! TRU? (!
PROPOSI;N1 = E N[ & !N EV5 A LIV+
ANIMAL1 Z ! ,LEPIDOSIR51 IS 4COV]$ HAV+
A69ITIES DIRECT$ T[>DS V 4T9CT GR\PS4
,YET IF WE -P>E ! OLD] REPTILES &
BATRA*IANS1 ! OLD] FI%1 ! OLD]
CEPHALOPODS1 &! EOC5E MAMMALS1 )! M
REC5T MEMB]S (! SAME CLASSES1 WE M/
ADMIT T "! IS TRU? 9 ! REM>K4
  ,LET U SEE H[ F> ^! S"EAL FACTS &
9F];ES A3ORD )! !ORY ( DESC5T )
MODIFIC,N4 ,Z ! SUBJECT IS "S:AT -PLEX1
,I M/ REQUE/ ! R1D] 6TURN 6! DIAGRAM 9 !
F\R? *APT]4 ,WE MAY SUPPOSE T ! NUMB]$
LRS 9 ITALICS REPRES5T G5]A1 &! L9ES
DIV]G+ F !M ! SPECIES 9 EA* G5US4 ,!
DIAGRAM IS M* TOO SIMPLE1 TOO FEW G5]A &
TOO FEW SPECIES 2+ GIV51 B ? IS
UNIMPORTANT = U4 ,! HORIZONTAL L9ES MAY
REPRES5T SU3ESSIVE GEOLOGICAL =M,NS1 &
ALL ! =MS 2N ! UPP]MO/ L9E MAY 2 3SID]$
Z EXT9CT4 ,! ?REE EXI/+ G5]A A#AD1 Q#AD1
P#AD1 W =M A SMALL FAMILY2 B#AD1 & F#AD
A CLOSELY ALLI$ FAMILY OR SUB-FAMILY2 &
O#AD1 E#AD1 M#AD1 A ?IRD FAMILY4 ,^!
?REE FAMILIES1 TGR )! _M EXT9CT G5]A ON
! S"EAL L9ES ( DESC5T DIV]G+ F ! P>5T-=M
7,A7 W =M AN ORD]1 = ALL W H 9H]IT$ "S?+
9 -MON F _! ANCI5T PROG5ITOR4 ,ON !
PR9CIPLE (! 3T9U$ T5D5CY 6DIV]G;E ( "*1
: 0 =M]LY ILLU/RAT$ 0? DIAGRAM1 ! M
REC5T ANY =M IS1 ! M X W G5],Y DI6] F XS
ANCI5T PROG5ITOR4 ,H;E WE C "U/& ! RULE
T ! MO/ ANCI5T FOSSILS DI6] MO/ F EXI/+
=MS4 ,WE M/ N1 H["E1 ASSUME T DIV]G;E (
"* IS A NEC 3T+5CY2 X DEP5DS SOLELY ON !
DESC5DANTS F A SPECIES 2+ ?US 5A#D
6SEIZE ON _M & DI6]5T PLACES 9 ! ECONOMY
( NATURE4 ,"!=E X IS Q POSSI#1 Z WE H
SE5 9 ! CASE ( "S ,SILURIAN =MS1 T A
SPECIES MI<T G ON 2+ SLI<TLY MODIFI$ 9
REL,N 6XS SLI<TLY ALT]$ 3DI;NS ( LIFE1 &
YET RETA9 "?\T A VA/ P]IOD ! SAME G5]AL
"*I/ICS4 ,? IS REPRES5T$ 9 ! DIAGRAM 0!
LR ,F#AD4
  ,ALL ! _M =MS1 EXT9CT & REC5T1 DESC5D$
F 7,A71 MAKE1 Z 2F REM>K$1 "O ORD]2 & ?
ORD]1 F ! 3T9U$ E6ECTS ( EXT9C;N &
DIV]G;E ( "*1 HAS 2COME DIVID$ 96S"EAL
SUB-FAMILIES & FAMILIES1 "S ( : >E
SUPPOS$ 6H P]I%$ AT DI6]5T P]IODS1 & "S
6H 5DUR$ 6! PRES5T "D4
  ,0LOOK+ AT ! DIAGRAM WE C SEE T IF _M
(! EXT9CT =MS SUPPOS$ 6BE IMB$D$ 9 !
SU3ESSIVE =M,NS1 7 4COV]$ AT S"EAL PO9TS
L[ D[N 9 ! S]IES1 ! ?REE EXI/+ FAMILIES
ON ! UPP]MO/ L9E WD 2 R5D]$ LESS 4T9CT F
EA* O!R4 ,IF1 = 9/.E1 ! G5]A A#A1 A#E1
A#AJ1 F#H1 M#C1 M#F1 M#I1 7 49T]R$1 ^!
?REE FAMILIES WD 2 S CLOSELY L9K$ TGR T
!Y PROBABLY WD H 6BE UNIT$ 96"O GRT
FAMILY1 9 NE>LY ! SAME MANN] Z HAS
O3URR$ ) RUM9ANTS & C]TA9 PA*YD]MS4 ,YET
HE :O OBJECT$ 63SID] Z 9T]M$IATE !
EXT9CT G5]A1 : ?US L9K TGR ! LIV+ G5]A (
?REE FAMILIES1 WD 2 "PLY JU/IFI$1 = !Y
>E 9T]M$IATE1 N DIRECTLY1 B ONLY 0A L;G
& CIRCUIT\S C\RSE "? _M WIDELY DI6]5T
=MS4 ,IF _M EXT9CT =MS 7 6BE 4COV]$ ABV
"O (! MI4LE HORIZONTAL L9ES OR
GEOLOGICAL =M,NS- = 9/.E1 ABV ,NO4
,,VI4- B N"O F 2N ? L9E1 !N ONLY TWO (!
FAMILIES 7^? ON ! LEFT H&1 A#AD1 &C41 &
B#AD1 &C47 WD H 6BE UNIT$ 96"O2 & "! WD
REMA9 TWO FAMILIES1 : WD 2 LESS 4T9CT F
EA* O!R ?AN !Y 7 2F ! 4COV]Y (! FOSSILS4
,S AG IF ! ?REE FAMILIES =M$ ( EI<T G5]A
7A#AD 6M#AD71 ON ! UPP]MO/ L9E1 2
SUPPOS$ 6DI6] F EA* O!R 0HALF-A-DOZ5
IMPORTANT "*S1 !N ! FAMILIES : EXI/$ AT
! P]IOD M>K$ ,,VI4 WD C]TA9LY H DI6]$ F
EA* O!R 0A LESS NUMB] ( "*S2 = !Y WD AT
? E>LY /AGE ( DESC5T H DIV]G$ 9 A LESS
DEGREE F _! -MON PROG5EITOR4 ,?US X -ES
T ANCI5T & EXT9CT G5]A >E (T5 9 A GRT]
OR LESS DEGREE 9T]M$IATE 9 "* 2T _!
MODIFI$ DESC5DANTS1 OR 2T _! COLLAT]AL
REL,NS4
  ,"U NATURE ! PROCESS W 2 F> M -PLICAT$
?AN REPRES5T$ 9 ! DIAGRAM2 =! GR\PS W H
BE5 M NUM]\S2 !Y W H 5DUR$ = EXTREMELY
UNEQUAL L5G?S ( "T1 & W H BE5 MODIFI$ 9
V>I\S DEGREES4 ,Z WE POSSESS ONLY ! LA/
VOLUME (! GEOLOGICAL RECORD1 & T 9 A V
BROK5 3DI;N1 WE H NO "R 6EXPECT1 EXCEPT
9 R>E CASES1 6FILL UP ! WIDE 9T]VALS 9 !
NATURAL SY/EM1 & ?US 6UNITE 4T9CT
FAMILIES OR ORD]S4 ,ALL T WE H A "R
6EXPECT IS1 T ^? GR\PS : H1 )9 "KN
GEOLOGICAL P]IODS1 "UG"O M* MODIFIC,N1
%D 9 ! OLD] =M,NS MAKE "S SLI<T APPROA*
6EA* O!R2 S T ! OLD] MEMB]S %D DI6] LESS
F EA* O!R 9 "S ( _! "*S ?AN D ! EXI/+
MEMB]S (! SAME GR\PS2 & ? 0! 3CURR5T
EVID;E ( \R BE/ PALAEONTOLOGI/S IS
FREQU5TLY ! CASE4
  ,?US1 ON ! !ORY ( DESC5T ) MODIFIC,N1
! MA9 FACTS ) RESPECT 6! MUTUAL A69ITIES
(! EXT9CT =MS ( LIFE 6EA* O!R & 6LIV+
=MS1 >E EXPLA9$ 9 A SATISFACTORY MANN]4
,& !Y >E :OLLY 9EXPLICA# ON ANY O!R
VIEW4
  ,ON ? SAME !ORY1 X IS EVID5T T ! FAUNA
DUR+ ANY "O GRT P]IOD 9 ! E>?'S HI/ORY W
2 9T]M$IATE 9 G5]AL "* 2T T : PREC$$ & T
: SU3E$$ X4 ,?US ! SPECIES : LIV$ AT !
SIX? GRT /AGE ( DESC5T 9 ! DIAGRAM >E !
MODIFI$ (FSPR+ ( ^? : LIV$ AT ! SIX?
/AGE ( DESC5T1 & >E ! P>5TS ( ^? : 2CAME
/ M MODIFI$ AT ! SEV5? /AGE2 H;E !Y CD
H>DLY FAIL 6BE NE>LY 9T]M$IATE 9 "* 2T !
=MS ( LIFE ABV & 2L4 ,WE M/1 H["E1 ALL[
=! 5TIRE EXT9C;N ( "S PREC$+ =MS1 & 9
ANY "O REGION =! IMMIGR,N ( NEW =MS F
O!R REGIONS1 &=A L>GE AM.T ( MODIFIC,N
DUR+ ! L;G & BLANK 9T]VALS 2T !
SU3ESSIVE =M,NS4 ,SUBJECT 6^! ALL[.ES1 !
FAUNA ( EA* GEOLOGICAL P]IOD UND\BT$LY
IS 9T]M$IATE 9 "*1 2T ! PREC$+ & SU3E$+
FAUNAS4 ,I NE$ GIVE ONLY "O 9/.E1 "NLY1
! MANN] 9 : ! FOSSILS (! ,DEVONIAN
SY/EM1 :5 ? SY/EM 0 F/ 4COV]$1 7 AT ONCE
RECOGNIZ$ 0PALAEONTOLOGI/S Z 9T]M$IATE 9
"* 2T ^? (! OV]LY+ C>BONIF]\S1 & "ULY+
,SILURIAN SY/EMS4 ,B EA* FAUNA IS N
NECESS>ILY EXACTLY 9T]M$IATE1 Z UNEQUAL
9T]VALS ( "T H ELAPS$ 2T 3SECUTIVE
=M,NS4
  ,X IS NO R1L OBJEC;N 6! TRU? (! /ATE;T
T ! FAUNA ( EA* P]IOD Z A :OLE IS NE>LY
9T]M$IATE 9 "* 2T PREC$+ & SU3E$+
FAUNAS1 T C]TA9 G5]A (F] EXCEP;NS 6!
RULE4 ,= 9/.E1 ! SPECIES ( MA/ODONS &
ELEPHANTS1 :5 >RANG$ 0,DR4 ,FALCON] 9
TWO S]IES1- ! F/ PLACE AC 6_! MUTUAL
A69ITIES1 & 9 ! SECOND PLACE AC 6_!
P]IODS ( EXI/;E1- D N A3ORD 9 >RANGE;T4
,! SPECIES EXTREME 9 "* >E N ! OLDE/ OR
! MO/ REC5T2 NOR >E ^? : >E 9T]M$IATE 9
"*1 9T]M$IATE 9 AGE4 ,B SUPPOS+ = AN
9/ANT1 9 ? & O!R S* CASES1 T ! RECORD (!
F/ APPE>.E & 4APPE>.E (! SPECIES 0
-PLETE1 : IS F> F ! CASE1 WE H NO R1SON
62LIEVE T =MS SU3ESSIVELY PRODUC$
NECESS>ILY 5DURE = CORRESPOND+ L5G?S (
"T4 ,A V ANCI5T =M MAY O3A.N,Y H LA/$ M*
L;G] ?AN A =M ELSE": SUBSEQU5TLY
PRODUC$1 ESPECI,Y 9 ! CASE ( T]RE/RIAL
PRODUC;NS 9HABIT+ SEP>AT$ 4TRICTS4
,6-P>E SMALL ?+S ) GRT2 IF ! PR9CIPAL
LIV+ & EXT9CT RACES (! DOME/IC PIGEON 7
>RANG$ 9 S]IAL A69;Y1 ? >RANGE;T WD N
CLOSELY A3ORD )! ORD] 9 "T ( _!
PRODUC;N1 & EV5 LESS )! ORD] ( _!
4APPE>.E2 =! P>5T ROCK-PIGEON / LIVES2 &
_M V>IETIES 2T ! ROCK-PIGEON &! C>RI] H
2COME EXT9CT2 & C>RI]S : >E EXTREME 9 !
IMPORTANT "* ( L5G? ( B1K ORIG9AT$ E>LI]
?AN %ORT-B1K$ TUM#RS1 : >E AT ! OPPOSITE
5D (! S]IES 9 ? RESPECT4
  ,CLOSELY 3NECT$ )! /ATE;T1 T ! ORGANIC
REMA9S F AN 9T]M$IATE =M,N >E 9 "S
DEGREE 9T]M$IATE 9 "*1 IS ! FACT1 9SI/$
ON 0ALL PALAEONTOLOGI/S1 T FOSSILS F TWO
3SECUTIVE =M,NS >E F> M CLOSELY RELAT$
6EA* O!R1 ?AN >E ! FOSSILS F TWO REMOTE
=M,NS4 ,PICTET GIVES Z A WELL-"KN 9/.E1
! G5]AL RESEMBL.E (! ORGANIC REMA9S F !
S"EAL /AGES (! ,*ALK =M,N1 ?\< ! SPECIES
>E 4T9CT 9 EA* /AGE4 ,? FACT AL"O1 F XS
G5]AL;Y1 SEEMS 6H %AK5 ,PROFESSOR
,PICTET 9 8 2LIEF 9 ! IMMUTABIL;Y (
SPECIES4 ,HE :O IS ACQUA9T$ )! 4TRIBU;N
( EXI/+ SPECIES OV] ! GLOBE1 W N ATTEMPT
6A3.T =! CLOSE RESEMBL.E ( 4T9CT SPECIES
9 CLOSELY 3SECUTIVE =M,NS1 0! PHYSICAL
3DI;NS (! ANCI5T >1S HAV+ REMA9$ NE>LY !
SAME4 ,LET X 2 REMEMB]$ T ! =MS ( LIFE1
AT L1/ ^? 9HABIT+ ! SEA1 H *ANG$ ALM
SIMULTANE\SLY "?\T ! _W1 & "!=E "U ! MO/
DI6]5T CLIMATES & 3DI;NS4 ,3SID] !
PRODIGI\S VICISSITUDES ( CLIMATE DUR+ !
PLEI/OC5E P]IOD1 : 9CLUDES ! :OLE
GLACIAL EPO*1 & NOTE H[ LL ! SPECIFIC
=MS (! 9HABITANTS (! SEA H BE5 A6ECT$4
  ,ON ! !ORY ( DESC5T1 ! FULL M1N+ (!
FOSSIL REMA9S F CLOSELY 3SECUTIVE =M,NS
2+ CLOSELY RELAT$1 ?\< RANK$ Z 4T9CT
SPECIES1 IS OBVI\S4 ,Z ! A3UMUL,N ( EA*
=M,N HAS (T5 BE5 9T]RUPT$1 & Z L;G BLANK
9T]VALS H 9T]V5$ 2T SU3ESSIVE =M,NS1 WE
"\ N 6EXPECT 6F9D1 Z ,I ATTEMPT$ 6%[ 9 !
LA/ *APT]1 9 ANY "O OR 9 ANY TWO =M,NS1
ALL ! 9T]M$IATE V>IETIES 2T ! SPECIES :
APPE>$ AT ! -M;E;T & CLOSE ( ^! P]IODS3
B WE "\ 6F9D AF 9T]VALS1 V L;G Z M1SUR$
0YE>S1 B ONLY MOD]ATELY L;G Z M1SUR$
GEOLOGIC,Y1 CLOSELY ALLI$ =MS1 OR1 Z !Y
H BE5 CALL$ 0"S AU?ORS1 REPRES5TATIVE
SPECIES2 & ^! ASSUR$LY WE D F9D4 ,WE
F9D1 9 %ORT1 S* EVID;E (! SL[ & SC>CELY
S5SI# MUT,NS ( SPECIFIC =MS1 Z WE H ! "R
6EXPECT4
  ,ON ! ,/ATE ( ,DEVELOP;T ( ,ANCI5T
-P>$ ) ,LIV+ ,=MS
  ,WE H SE5 9 ! F\R? *APT] T ! DEGREE (
DI6]5TI,N & SPECIALIS,N (! "PS 9 ORGANIC
2+S1 :5 >RIV$ AT MATUR;Y1 IS ! BE/ /&>D1
Z YET SU7E/$1 ( _! DEGREE ( P]FEC;N OR
HI<;S4 ,WE H AL SE5 T1 Z ! SPECIALIS,N (
"PS IS AN ADVANTAGE 6EA* 2+1 S NATURAL
SELEC;N W T5D 6R5D] ! ORGANIS,N ( EA* 2+
M SPECIALIS$ & P]FECT1 & 9 ? S5SE HI<]2
N B T X MAY L1VE _M CR1TURES ) SIMPLE &
UNIMPROV$ /RUCTURES FITT$ = SIMPLE
3DI;NS ( LIFE1 & 9 "S CASES W EV5
DEGRADE OR SIMPLIFY ! ORGANIS,N1 YET
L1V+ S* DEGRAD$ 2+S BETT] FITT$ = _! NEW
WALKS ( LIFE4 ,9 ANO!R & M G5]AL MANN]1
NEW SPECIES 2COME SUP]IOR 6_!
PR$ECESSORS2 = !Y H 6B1T 9 ! /RU7LE =
LIFE ALL ! OLD] =MS1 ) : !Y -E 96CLOSE
-PETI;N4 ,WE MAY "!=E 3CLUDE T IF "U A
NE>LY SIMIL> CLIMATE ! EOC5E 9HABITANTS
(! _W CD 2 PUT 96-PETI;N )! EXI/+
9HABITANTS1 ! =M] WD 2 B1T5 & EXT]M9AT$
0! LATT]1 Z WD ! SECOND>Y 0! EOC5E1 &!
PALAEOZOIC 0! SECOND>Y =MS4 ,S T 0?
FUNDA;TAL TE/ ( VICTORY 9 ! BATTLE =
LIFE1 Z WELL Z 0! /&>D (! SPECIALIS,N (
ORGANS1 MOD]N =MS "\1 ON ! !ORY (
NATURAL SELEC;N1 6/& HI<] ?AN ANCI5T
=MS4 ,IS ? ! CASE8 ,A L>GE MAJOR;Y (
PALAEONTOLOGI/S WD ANSW] 9 ! A6IRMATIVE2
& X SEEMS T ? ANSW] M/ 2 ADMITT$ Z TRUE1
?\< DI6ICULT ( PRO(4
  ,X IS NO VALID OBJEC;N 6? 3CLU.N1 T
C]TA9 BRA*IOPODS H BE5 B SLI<TLY MODIFI$
F AN EXTREMELY REMOTE GEOLOGICAL EPO*2 &
T C]TA9 L& & FRE%-WAT] %ELLS H REMA9$
NE>LY ! SAME1 F ! "T :51 Z F> Z IS "KN1
!Y F/ APPE>$4 ,X IS N AN 9SUP]A#
DI6ICULTY T ,=AM9IF]A H N1 Z 9SI/$ ON
0,DR4 ,C>P5T]1 PROGRESS$ 9 ORGANIS,N
S9CE EV5 ! ,LAUR5TIAN EPO*2 = "S
ORGANISMS WD H 6REMA9 FITT$ = SIMPLE
3DI;NS ( LIFE1 & :AT CD 2 BETT] FITT$ =
? 5D ?AN ^! L[LY ORGANIS$ ,PROTOZOA8 ,S*
OBJEC;NS Z ! ABV WD 2 FATAL 6MY VIEW1 IF
X 9CLUD$ ADV.E 9 ORGANIS,N Z A NEC
3T+5T4 ,!Y WD LIKEWISE 2 FATAL1 IF ! ABV
,=AM9IF]A1 = 9/.E1 CD 2 PROV$ 6H F/ -E
96EXI/;E DUR+ ! ,LAUR5TIAN EPO*1 OR !
ABV BRA*IOPODS DUR+ ! ,CAMBRIAN =M,N2 =
9 ? CASE1 "! WD N H BE5 "T SU6ICI5T =!
DEVELOP;T ( ^! ORGANISMS UP 6! /&>D : !Y
_H !N R1*$4 ,:5 ADV.ED UP 6ANY GIV5
PO9T1 "! IS NO NECESS;Y1 ON ! !ORY (
NATURAL SELEC;N1 = _! FUR!R 3T9U$
PROGRESS2 ?\< !Y W1 DUR+ EA* SU3ESSIVE
AGE1 H 6BE SLI<TLY MODIFI$1 S Z 6HOLD _!
PLACES 9 REL,N 6SLI<T *ANGES 9 _!
3DI;NS4 ,! =EGO+ OBJEC;NS H+E ON ! "Q
:E!R WE RE,Y "K H[ OLD ! _W IS1 & AT :AT
P]IOD ! V>I\S =MS ( LIFE F/ APPE>$2 & ?
MAY WELL 2 4PUT$4
  ,! PRO#M :E!R ORGANIS,N ON ! :OLE HAS
ADV.ED IS 9 _M WAYS EXCESSIVELY
9TRICATE4 ,! GEOLOGICAL RECORD1 AT ALL
"TS IMP]FECT1 DOES N EXT5D F> 5 BACK 6%[
) UNMISTAKA# CLE>;S T )9 ! "KN HI/ORY (!
_W ORGANIS,N HAS L>GELY ADV.ED4 ,EV5 AT
! PRES5T "D1 LOOK+ 6MEMB]S (! SAME
CLASS1 NATURALI/S >E N UNANIM\S : =MS "\
6BE RANK$ Z HI<E/3 ?US1 "S LOOK AT !
SELAC1NS OR %>KS1 F _! APPROA* 9 "S
IMPORTANT PO9TS ( /RUCTURE 6REPTILES1 Z
! HI<E/ FI%2 O!RS LOOK AT ! TELEO/1NS Z
! HI<E/4 ,! GANOIDS /& 9T]M$IATE 2T !
SELAC1NS & TELEO/1NS2 ! LATT] AT !
PRES5T "D >E L>GELY PREPOND]ANT 9 NUMB]2
B =M]LY SELAC1NS & GANOIDS AL"O EXI/$2 &
9 ? CASE1 AC 6! /&>D ( HI<;S *OS51 S W X
2 SD T FI%ES H ADV.ED OR RETROGRAD$ 9
ORGANIS,N4 ,6ATTEMPT 6-P>E MEMB]S (
4T9CT TYPES 9 ! SCALE ( HI<;S SEEM
HOPE.S2 :O W DECIDE :E!R A CUTTLE-FI% 2
HI<] ?AN A BEE- T 9SECT : ! GRT VON
,BAER 2LIEV$ 6BE 8IN FACT M HI<LY
ORGANIS$ ?AN A FI%1 AL? ^U ANO!R TYPE08
,9 ! -PLEX /RU7LE = LIFE X IS Q CR$I# T
CRU/AC1NS1 N V HI< 9 _! [N CLASS1 MI<T
B1T CEPHALOPODS1 ! HI<E/ MOLLUSCS2 & S*
CRU/AC1NS1 ?\< N HI<LY DEVELOP$1 WD /& V
HI< 9 ! SCALE ( 9V]TEBRATE ANIMALS1 IF
JUDG$ 0! MO/ DECISIVE ( ALL TRIALS- !
LAW ( BATTLE4 ,2SS ^! 9H]5T DI6ICULTIES
9 DECID+ : =MS >E ! MO/ ADV.ED 9
ORGANIS,N1 WE "\ N SOLELY 6-P>E ! HI<E/
MEMB]S (A CLASS AT ANY TWO P]IODS- ?\<
UND\BT$LY ? IS "O & P]H ! MO/ IMPORTANT
ELE;T 9 /RIK+ A BAL.E- B WE "\ 6-P>E ALL
! MEMB]S1 HI< & L[1 AT ! TWO P]IODS4 ,AT
AN ANCI5T EPO* ! HI<E/ & L[E/
MOLLUSCOIDAL ANIMALS1 "NLY1 CEPHALOPODS
& BRA*IOPODS1 SW>M$ 9 NUMB]S2 AT !
PRES5T "T BO? GR\PS >E GRTLY REDUC$1
:IL/ O!RS1 9T]M$IATE 9 ORGANIS,N1 H
L>GELY 9CR1S$2 3SEQU5TLY "S NATURALI/S
MA9TA9 T MOLLUSCS 7 =M]LY M HI<LY
DEVELOP$ ?AN AT PRES5T2 B A /R;G] CASE C
2 MADE \ ON ! OPPOSITE SIDE1 03SID]+ !
VA/ REDUC;N ( BRA*IOPODS1 &! FACT T \R
EXI/+ CEPHALOPODS1 ?\< FEW 9 NUMB]1 >E M
HI<LY ORGANIS$ ?AN _! ANCI5T
REPRES5TATIVES4 ,WE "\ AL 6-P>E !
RELATIVE PROPOR;NAL NUMB]S AT ANY TWO
P]IODS (! HI< & L[ CLASSES "?\T ! _W3
IF1 = 9/.E1 AT ! PRES5T "D FIFTY ?\S&
K9DS ( V]TEBRATE ANIMALS EXI/1 & IF WE
KNEW T AT "S =M] P]IOD ONLY T5 ?\S& K9DS
EXI/$1 WE "\ 6LOOK AT ? 9CR1SE 9 NUMB] 9
! HI<E/ CLASS1 : IMPLIES A GRT 4PLACE;T
( L[] =MS1 Z A DECID$ ADV.E 9 !
ORGANIS,N (! _W4 ,WE ?US SEE H[ HOPE.SLY
DI6ICULT X IS 6-P>E ) P]FECT FAIR;S S*
EXTREMELY -PLEX REL,NS1 ! /&>DS (
ORGANIS,N (! IMP]FECTLY-"KN FAUNAS (
SU3ESSIVE P]IODS4
  ,WE % APPRECIATE ? DI6ICULTY M CLE>LY1
0LOOK+ 6C]TA9 EXI/+ FAUNAS & FLORAS4 ,F
! EXTRAORD9>Y MANN] 9 : ,EUROP1N
PRODUC;NS H REC5TLY SPR1D OV] ,NEW
,Z1L&1 & H SEIZ$ ON PLACES : M/ H BE5
PREVI\SLY O3UPI$ 0! 9DIG5ES1 WE M/
2LIEVE1 T IF ALL ! ANIMALS & PLANTS (
,GRT ,BRITA9 7 SET FREE 9 ,NEW ,Z1L&1 A
MULTITUDE ( ,BRITI% =MS WD 9 ! C\RSE (
"T 2COME ?OR\<LY NATURALIS$ "!1 & WD
EXT]M9ATE _M (! NATIVES4 ,ON ! O!R H&1 F
! FACT T H>DLY A S+LE 9HABITANT (! S\!RN
HEMISPH]E HAS 2COME WILD 9 ANY "P (
,EUROPE1 WE MAY WELL D\BT :E!R1 IF ALL !
PRODUC;NS ( ,NEW ,Z1L& 7 SET FREE 9 ,GRT
,BRITA91 ANY 3SID]A# NUMB] WD 2 5A#D
6SEIZE ON PLACES N[ O3UPI$ 0\R NATIVE
PLANTS & ANIMALS4 ,"U ? PO9T ( VIEW1 !
PRODUC;NS ( ,GRT ,BRITA9 /& M* HI<] 9 !
SCALE ?AN ^? ( ,NEW ,Z1L&4 ,YET ! MO/
SKIL;L NATURALI/1 F AN EXAM9,N ,(!
SPECIES (! SPECIES (! TWO C.TRIES1 CD N
H =ESE5 ? RESULT4
  ,AGASSIZ & S"EAL O!R HI<LY -PET5T
JUDGES 9SI/ T ANCI5T ANIMALS RESEM# 6A
C]TA9 EXT5T ! EMBRYOS ( REC5T ANIMALS
2L;G+ 6! SAME CLASSES2 & T ! GEOLOGICAL
SU3ES.N ( EXT9CT =MS IS NE>LY P>ALLEL )!
EMBRYOLOGICAL DEVELOP;T ( EXI/+ =MS4 ,?
VIEW A3ORDS ADMIRABLY WELL ) \R !ORY4 ,9
A FUTURE *APT] ,I % ATTEMPT 6%[ T !
ADULT DI6]S F XS EMBRYO1 [+ 6V>I,NS HAV+
SUP]V5$ AT A N E>LY AGE1 & HAV+ BE5
9H]IT$ AT A CORRESPOND+ AGE4 ,? PROCESS1
:IL/ X L1VES ! EMBRYO ALM UNALT]$1
3T9U,Y A4S1 9 ! C\RSE ( SU3ESSIVE
G5],NS1 M & M DI6];E 6! ADULT4 ,?US !
EMBRYO -ES 6BE LEFT Z A SORT ( PICTURE1
PRES]V$ 0NATURE1 (! =M] & LESS MODIFI$
3DI;N (! SPECIES4 ,? VIEW MAY 2 TRUE1 &
YET MAY N"E 2 CAPA# ( PRO(4 ,SEE+1 =
9/.E1 T ! OLDE/ "KN MAMMALS1 REPTILES1 &
FI%ES /RICTLY 2L;G 6_! PROP] CLASSES1
?\< "S ( ^! OLD =MS >E 9 A SLI<T DEGREE
LESS 4T9CT F EA* O!R ?AN >E ! TYPICAL
MEMB]S (! SAME GR\PS AT ! PRES5T "D1 X
WD 2 VA9 6LOOK = ANIMALS HAV+ ! -MON
EMBRYOLOGICAL "* (! ,V]TEBRATA1 UNTIL
B$S RI* 9 FOSSILS >E 4COV]$ F> 2N ! L[E/
,CAMBRIAN /RATA- A 4COV]Y ( : ! *.E IS
SMALL4
  ,ON ! ,SU3ES.N (! SAME ,TYPES )9 !
SAME ,>1S1 DUR+ ! LAT] ,T]TI>Y P]IODS
  ,MR4 ,CLIFT _M YE>S AGO %[$ T ! FOSSIL
MAMMALS F ! ,AU/RALIAN CAVES 7 CLOSELY
ALLI$ 6! LIV+ M>SUPIALS ( T 3T95T4 ,9
,S\? ,AM]ICA A SIMIL> REL,N%IP IS
MANIFE/1 EV5 6AN UN$UCAT$ EYE1 9 !
GIGANTIC PIECES ( >M\R1 L ^? (!
>MADILLO1 F.D 9 S"EAL "PS ( ,LA ,PLATA2
& ,PROFESSOR ,[5 HAS %[N 9 ! MO/ /RIK+
MANN] T MO/ (! FOSSIL MAMMALS1 BURI$ "!
9 S* NUMB]S1 >E RELAT$ 6,S\? ,AM]ICAN
TYPES4 ,? REL,N%IP IS EV5 M CLE>LY SE5 9
! WOND];L COLLEC;N ( FOSSIL B"OS MADE
0,,MM4 ,LUND & ,CLAUS5 9 ! CAVES (
,BRAZIL4 ,I 0 S M* IMPRESS$ ) ^! FACTS T
,I /R;GLY 9SI/$1 9 #AHCI & #AHDE1 ON ?
8LAW (! SU3ES.N ( TYPES10- ON 8? WOND];L
REL,N%IP 9 ! SAME 3T95T 2T ! D1D &!
LIV+40 ,PROFESSOR ,[5 HAS SUBSEQU5TLY
EXT5D$ ! SAME G5]ALIS,N 6! MAMMALS (!
,OLD ,_W4 ,WE SEE ! SAME LAW 9 ? AU?OR'S
RE/OR,NS (! EXT9CT & GIGANTIC BIRDS (
,NEW ,Z1L&4 ,WE SEE X AL 9 ! BIRDS (!
CAVES ( ,BRAZIL4 ,MR4 ,WOODW>D HAS %[N T
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WIDE 4TRIBU;N ( MO/ MOLLUSCS1 X IS N
WELL 4PLAY$ 0!M4 ,O!R CASES CD 2 A4$1 Z
! REL,N 2T ! EXT9CT & LIV+ L&-%ELLS (
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(! SAME TYPES )9 ! SAME >1S M1N8 ,HE WD
2 A BOLD MAN :O1 AF -P>+ ! PRES5T
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6A3.T1 ON ! "O H& "? 4SIMIL> PHYSICAL
3DI;NS1 =! 4SIMIL>;Y (! 9HABITANTS ( ^!
TWO 3T95TS2 &1 ON ! O!R H& "? SIMIL>;Y (
3DI;NS1 =! UNI=M;Y (! SAME TYPES 9 EA*
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X 2 PRET5D$ T X IS AN IMMUTA# LAW T
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,S\? ,AM]ICA4 ,= WE "K T ,EUROPE 9
ANCI5T "TS 0 PEOPL$ 0NUM]\S M>SUPIALS2 &
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9 ,AM]ICA ! LAW ( 4TRIBU;N ( T]RE/RIAL
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4TRIBU;N ( M>9E ANIMALS4
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EXPLA9$2 =! 9HABITANTS ( EA* QU>T] (! _W
W OBVI\SLY T5D 6L1VE 9 T QU>T]1 DUR+ !
NEXT SU3E$+ P]IOD ( "T1 CLOSELY ALLI$
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GRT GEOGRAPHICAL *ANGES1 P]MITT+ M*
9T]MIGR,N1 ! FEE#R W YIELD 6! M DOM9ANT
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( ORGANIC 2+S4
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SUPPOSE T ! ,MEGA!RIUM & O!R ALLI$ HUGE
MON/]S1 : =M]LY LIV$ 9 ,S\? ,AM]ICA1 H
LEFT 2H !M ! SLO?1 >MADILLO1 & ANTEAT]1
Z _! DEG5]ATE DESC5DANTS4 ,? _C = AN
9/ANT 2 ADMITT$4 ,^! HUGE ANIMALS H
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ALL O!R "*S 6! SPECIES / LIV+ 9 ,S\?
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ACTUAL PROG5ITORS (! LIV+ SPECIES4 ,X M/
N 2 =GOTT5 T1 ON \R !ORY1 ALL ! SPECIES
(! SAME G5US >E ! DESC5DANTS ( "S "O
SPECIES2 S T1 IF SIX G5]A1 EA* HAV+ EI<T
SPECIES1 2 F.D 9 "O GEOLOGICAL =M,N1 & 9
A SU3E$+ =M,N "! 2 SIX O!R ALLI$ OR
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SPECIES1 !N WE MAY 3CLUDE T G5],Y ONLY
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! SIX OLD] G5]A W 2 ! P>5TS (! NEW G5]A3
! O!R SPECIES &! O!R OLD G5]A HAV+ 2COME
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SPECIES W L1VE MODIFI$ BLOOD-DESC5DANTS4
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ORGANIC 2+S H BE5 L>GELY PRES]V$ 9 A
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SPECIES1 PRES]V$ 9 \R MUSEUMS1 IS
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: M/ H PASS$ AWAY EV5 DUR+ A S+LE =M,N2
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& ?ICK 5 6\TLA/ FUTURE DEGRAD,N1 GRT
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SU3ESSIVE =M,NS2 T "! HAS PROBABLY BE5 M
EXT9C;N DUR+ ! P]IODS ( SUBSID;E1 & M
V>I,N DUR+ ! P]IODS ( ELEV,N1 & DUR+ !
LATT] ! RECORD W H BE5 LESS P]FECTLY
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SPECIFIC =MS2 T MIGR,N HAS PLAY$ AN
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ANY "O >EA & =M,N2 T WIDELY RANG+
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-P>ISON )! P]IODS DUR+ : EA* REMA9$ 9 AN
UN*ANG$ 3DI;N4 ,^! CAUSES1 TAK5 3JO9TLY1
W 6A L>GE EXT5T EXPLA9 :Y- ?\< WE D F9D
_M L9KS- WE D N F9D 9T]M9A# V>IETIES1
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:OLE *A9 CD 2 P]FECTLY RE/OR$1 Z A NEW &
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ANY SURE CRIT]ION 0: SPECIES & V>IETIES
C 2 4CRIM9AT$4
  ,HE :O REJECTS ? VIEW (! IMP]FEC;N (!
GEOLOGICAL RECORD1 W "RLY REJECT ! :OLE
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NUMB].S TRANSI;NAL L9KS : M/ =M]LY H
3NECT$ ! CLOSELY ALLI$ OR REPRES5TATIVE
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APP>5T1 B (T5 FALSELY APP>5T1 SU45 -+ 9
( :OLE GR\PS ( SPECIES4 ,HE MAY ASK ":
>E ! REMA9S ( ^? 9F9ITELY NUM]\S
ORGANISMS : M/ H EXI/$ L;G 2F !
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H /OOD S9CE ! -M;E;T (! ,CAMBRIAN SY/EM2
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9 NUMB]S SL[LY1 & 5DURE = UNEQUAL P]IODS
( "T2 =! PROCESS ( MODIFIC,N IS
NECESS>ILY SL[1 & DEP5DS ON _M -PLEX
3T+5CIES4 ,! DOM9ANT SPECIES 2L;G+ 6L>GE
& DOM9ANT GR\PS T5D 6L1VE _M MODIFI$
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6L1VE NO MODIFI$ (FSPR+ ON ! FACE (!
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SPECIES HAS "S"TS BE5 A SL[ PROCESS1 F !
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PROTECT$ & ISOLAT$ SITU,NS4 ,:5 A GR\P
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REAPPE>2 =! L9K ( G5],N HAS BE5 BROK54
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! GR\PS : >E _! 9F]IORS 9 ! /RU7LE =
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PRODUC;NS (! _W APPE> 6H *ANG$
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M X G5],Y DI6]S F ^? N[ LIV+2 :Y ANCI5T
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ANCI5T A =M IS1 ! M (T5 X /&S 9 "S
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ANCI5T A =M IS1 ! M NE>LY X W 2 RELAT$
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SCALE1 & _! /RUCTURE HAS G5],Y 2COME M
SPECIALIS$2 & ? MAY A3.T =! -MON 2LIEF
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EMBRYOS (! M REC5T ANIMALS 2L;G+ 6! SAME
CLASSES1 & ? WOND];L FACT RCVS A SIMPLE
EXPLAN,N AC 6\R VIEWS4 ,! SU3ES.N (!
SAME TYPES ( /RUCTURE )9 ! SAME >1S DUR+
! LAT] GEOLOGICAL P]IODS C1SES 6BE
MY/]I\S1 & IS 9TELLIGI# ON ! PR9CIPLE (
9H]IT.E4
  ,IF !N ! GEOLOGICAL RECORD 2 Z
IMP]FECT Z _M 2LIEVE1 & X MAY AT L1/ 2
ASS]T$ T ! RECORD _C 2 PROV$ 6BE M* M
P]FECT1 ! MA9 OBJEC;NS 6! !ORY ( NATURAL
SELEC;N >E GRTLY DIM9I%$ OR 4APPE>4 ,ON
! O!R H&1 AN ! *IEF LAWS ( PALAEONTOLOGY
PLA9LY PROCLAIM1 Z X SEEMS 6ME1 T
SPECIES H BE5 PRODUC$ 0ORD9>Y G5],N3 OLD
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,SURVIVAL (! ,FITTE/4
