JVIB:Literacy:Emergent Literacy

Emergent Literacy: A New Perspective

J.M. Stratton

Abstract: Emergent literacy, a process in which the child constructs concepts about the functions of symbols and print, is based on experiences and meaningful language facilitated by interactions with adults. This article presents a literature-based overview of emergent literacy and explores the fit between emergent literacy and the learning needs of children who are blind or visually impaired.

The concept of emergent literacy evolved during the past decade as the result of new information on how young children develop an understanding of reading and writing (Gibson, 1989; Hiebert & Fisher, 1990; Neuman & Roskos, 1993; Rex, Koenig, Wormsley, & Baker, 1994). Emergent literacy may be described as the process of learning about the environment that leads to the development of meaning and concepts, including concepts about the functions of reading and writing. Koenig (1992, p. 279) stated that emergent literacy "is characterized by the early development of understanding that abstract symbols have meaning and that people use these symbols for the communication of ideas." This article provides an overview of the concept of emergent literacy as described in the literature and explores the "fit" between the concept and the ways in which children who are blind or visually impaired learn.

The concept

The process of emergent literacy begins at birth, involves all aspects of a child's development, and continues throughout life (Clay, 1991; Neuman & Roskos, 1993; Rex et al., 1994; Strickland & Morrow, 1989; Teale & Sulzby, 1989). It begins with the child's early nonverbal and verbal interactions with others, awareness of the environment, and explorations. It continues as the child gains intentional language, broadens explorations, and builds concepts. It progresses as the child gains an understanding of the functions of symbols and language (Clay, 1991; Neuman & Roskos, 1993), has experiences with books (Clay, 1991; Teale & Sulzby, 1989), and experiments with writing (Gibson, 1989; Harste, Short, & Burke, 1988). Out of these experiences, the child gradually builds concepts about reading and writing. The focus of emergent literacy is on learning, rather than on teaching, and on the child as an active learner (Hiebert & Fisher, 1990; Teale & Sulzby, 1989). The role of the adult is to facilitate and extend child-initiated learning (Vygotsky, 1978).

Emergent literacy is centered on meaning and is a constructive (Clay, 1991; Hiebert & Fisher, 1990; Rex et al., 1994), functional (Gibson, 1989; Neuman & Roskos, 1993; Strickland & Morrow, 1989), and interactive process (Harste et al., 1988; Morrow & Rand, 1991). It is constructive in that it develops internally as the child builds concepts about the environment (Harste & Woodward, 1989; Neuman & Roskos, 1993) and culture (Walker-Dalhouse, 1993) on the basis of active explorations and meaningful language. It is functional, in that its purpose is in that it allows the child to perform activities in natural situations, such as reading directions, scanning a map, or recording a telephone message. And it is interactive because it involves feedback from adults or other children on child initiated play and language. The purpose of adult-child interactions, according to the emergent-literacy perspective, is to foster the child's development of the literacy process, rather than to help the child get the "right" answer (Clay, 1991).

Selected components

Although many aspects of a child's growth, development, and learning form the foundation of emergent literacy, space limitations preclude a full discussion of all of them. Therefore, this section discusses four primary components of emergent literacy: reading to children, the concept of a symbol, emerging writing, and literacy environments.

READING ALOUD

Whereas generations of children have listened to read-aloud stories for enjoyment, information, and shared time with an adult, recent studies have found that reading aloud regularly to a child from infancy is the most important factor in building a foundation for the enjoyment of and success in reading (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, & Wilkinson, 1985; Clay, 1991; Gibson, 1989; Teale & Sulzby, 1989). Among the literacy outcomes for a child are the discovery that books are fun, awareness that symbols represent meaning, understanding that the story comes from print, awareness of the structure of stories, hearing "book language" as different from conversational language, and fostering a desire to read (Anderson et al., 1985; Clay, 1991; Gibson, 1989; Neuman & Roskos, 1993; Teale & Sulzby, 1989). Among the suggested indicators of preacademic skill outcome for 3 year olds in this area, compiled by the National Center on Educational Outcomes (Ysseldyke, Thurlow, & Gilman, 1993) is that the child demonstrates an interest in books and in listening to stories.

CONCEPT OF A SYMBOL

Developing the concept that a symbol is functional and represents meaning is essential to emergent literacy (Clay, 1991; Gibson, 1989). Simply defined, a symbol is something that represents something else. It is functional when it provides needed information that is not otherwise readily available (Stratton & Wright, 1991). The symbol may be an object that represents another object, such as a block representing a plate; a picture representing an object; a symbol, such as an arrow, with its commonly accepted meaning; or a conventional letter or word representing a constant meaning.

Many 3 year olds recognize and understand symbols they see around them (Gibson, 1989; Neuman & Roskos, 1993). Through observation, play, and interactions, they learn, for example, that a red light tells drivers to stop and a green one tells them to go and that the logo for recycling tells where to put cans and bottles. A suggested indicator for the preacademic skill outcome for 3 year olds in this area (Ysseldyke et al., 1993) is that the child recognizes that symbols or objects may represent other objects or events. This indicator refers to the concept of a symbol, not to the reading or writing of conventional symbols.

EMERGENT WRITING

New information on emergent literacy indicates that reading and writing are complementary processes, each of which supports the learning of the other, and that children develop an understanding of writing and construct concepts of the functions of written language at an earlier age than was previously thought (Clay, 1991; Harste et al., 1988; Neuman & Roskos, 1993). For example, Harste and Woodward (1989) reported that when 3 year olds were asked to make a picture, the marks they made were distinctly different from those they made when asked to write their names. Gibson (1989) and Neuman & Roskos (1993) reported similar findings.

The child discovers many things about the functions of symbols and writing by observing others who are engaged in such activities and by actively experimenting (Gibson, 1989; Teale & Sulzby, 1989). Traditionally, these initial efforts in nonconventional writing that imitate adults' functional writing have received little attention from adults (Neuman & Roskos, 1993) or have amused them (Gibson, 1989). On the basis of recent information on emergent literacy, however, these early efforts are now recognized as significant in that they demonstrate early applications of concepts of writing (Harste & Woodward, 1989).

LITERACY ENVIRONMENTS

Although each child constructs the concepts of literacy internally, much can be done to support his or her learning. The home and preschool environments, including adult-child interactions in them, provide the primary opportunities for exploration and play that promote the emergence of literacy (Morrow & Rand, 1991; Teale & Sulzby, 1989). Recent investigations on the home environments of preschool children have yielded new information on opportunities for literacy activities. For instance, Morrow & Rand (I 99 1) identified common elements in children's environments that encourage the development of literacy: adult-child interactions; the ready availability of books and writing materials; opportunities to observe others engaging in functional reading and writing, such as writing lists or reading a newspaper; and the presence of adults who value reading and who recognize that children's literacy efforts are important.

Marvin and Mirenda (1993) reported the results of a study comparing the literacy experiences of children in Head Start programs, in early childhood special education classrooms, and children with no disabilities enrolled in ECSE (early childhood special education) classes as "peer models" (p. 353). One finding was that preschoolers in early childhood special education classes (including 7% who were visually impaired) had fewer literacy experiences at home, particularly with writing, than did children in the other groups. More research is needed to identify the conditions in the environment that support emergent literacy. From an emergent literacy perspective, the role of the family and preschool is changing from "preparing" children for literacy to structuring the environment and guiding the children's present literacy learning (Clay, 1991; Gibson, 1989; Neuman & Roskos, 1993).

In summary, the primary emphasis of the new perspective of emergent literacy is on children as active learners, not on teaching strategies. Since emergent literacy involves children's entire development and learning, many activities that support its development are not essentially different from those in which children commonly engage. However, they may require extension, increased focus, and recognition by adults of their importance to literacy.

Application to children who are blind or visually impaired

Some aspects of emergent literacy appear to fit naturally with the ways in which children who are blind or visually impaired learn, but others may require some adaptations. First, the hands-on experiences that are so essential for the development and learning of children who are blind and visually impaired also form the foundation for emergent literacy. Through hands-on experiences, children gain an understanding of the environment and of the relationship between them and what is around them.

Children may show delays, however, in independent mobility and exploring that restrict interactions with the environment and, consequently, concept development. There is increasing awareness that these delays result from limited opportunities to learn, rather than from visual impairment (Warren, 1994). Changing the environment to increase movement and exploration at an earlier age will enhance all aspects of a child's development, including emergent literacy.

Among the recent promising research and initiatives on changing the environment of blind or visually impaired children to increase movement and exploration have been mobility devices for preschool children (Anthony, Fazzi, Lampert, & Pogrund, 1992; Bosbach, 1988; Clarke, Sainato, & Ward, 1994; Foy, Von Scheden, & Waiculonis, 1992; Pogrund, Fazzi, & Schreier, 1993), playground designs that encourage movement (Blakely, Lang, & Hart, 1991), and identification of the issues in the use of optical devices that affect active exploration in children with low vision (O'Donnell & Livingston, 1991). These initiatives show promise for increasing opportunities for children to explore and develop concepts for increasing support for emergent literacy.

For children who are blind or visually impaired, especially for those who are potential braille readers, well-developed hand skills and tactile skills are critical for orientation, mobility, developing concepts, and identifying details. Hand skills and tactile skills are as important for emergent literacy as they are for other areas of functioning. Since the importance of these skills in other areas is well known, it is not discussed here.

An outcome of children's active experiences and interactions is the development of meaningful language (Warren, 1994), another area of emergent literacy that appears to be a good fit for children who are blind or visually impaired. These children's development of meaningful language is a continuing concern (Anderson, Dunlea, & Kekelis, 1984; Cutsforth, 1951; Dokecki, 1966; Kekelis & Anderson, 1984; Warren, 1994).

Kekelis and Anderson (1984) and Warren (1994) stated that any differences in the language of blind children and sighted children may be accounted for in the experiential background of a child and recommended that caretakers model more descriptive language (Kekelis & Anderson, 1984) and use age-appropriate language (Warren, 1994) when interacting with a child. On the one hand, Dokecki (1966) and Ferrell et al. (1990) suggested that the language of children who are visually impaired may be similar to that of their sighted peers. On the other hand, Anderson et al. (1984) reported that the extension and refinement of word meanings by children who are blind or visually impaired is more limited than that of their sighted peers. Adults can encourage language development when reading to children by modeling language and using age-appropriate language in interactions. The key is their awareness of the importance of these interactions for emergent literacy.

READING ALOUD

Little information is available to determine the fit between reading aloud and the learning needs of children who are blind or visually impaired. From observations and anecdotal information, however, it is reasonable to assume that the benefits will be the same for this population as for all children if adults adapt strategies to meet the individual child's learning levels and needs.

No information is available on the percentage of children who are blind or visually impaired who have stories read to them or how frequently stories are read. Crespo (1990) reported that one group of parents did not read stories to their blind children because since the children could not see the pictures, the parents thought they might be confused by the visual concepts. After participating in making tactile story books, these parents were more positive about reading stories to their children.

Selecting stories that relate to a child's interests and experiences (Stratton & Wright, 1991) and adapting books and reading strategies (Crespo, 1990; Miller, 1985) will increase a child's enjoyment and understanding of the stories. Research is needed to determine effective strategies for reading aloud that will foster emergent literacy in potential braille readers.

CONCEPT OF A SYMBOL

Little information is available on how children who are blind or visually impaired develop the concept of a symbol. Without vision, how do children realize the function of symbols or even know symbols are around? Does symbolization in play, such as using a crayon for a spoon, lead a child to develop the concept of a symbol? Tactile symbols are sometimes used to identify items that a child who is blind or visually impaired uses. Do these symbols lead a child develop the concept that a symbol represents something else and has meaning?

It is important to differentiate between a symbol and a label because the learning of these two is different. For example, a symbol, such as a piece of tape, may be placed on one of two identical boxes, one containing tools for scribbling and the other containing paper, and a child is told what is in the box that has the particular symbol. When using the symbol as an identifier, the child is using functional symbol to gain meaning. If a piece of paper is placed on the box, however, it is considered a label, since it is the actual object-not a representation of the object. The child's task, then, is simply to identify the object, rather than to use a symbol for meaning. This distinction does not imply that labels should not be used. It is important to be aware, however, that the learning processes involved in interpreting labels and interpreting symbols are different. Further research is needed on how children who are potential braille readers develop the concept of a symbol.

EMERGENT WRITING

Concepts about the functions of written language are important for emergent literacy. Are children who are blind or visually impaired aware when others use functional writing? Without such awareness, will they experiment? How many children who are blind or visually impaired have opportunities to experiment by having materials and tools readily available? Swenson (1991) provided descriptive information on successful strategies for helping braille reading primary-age children gain concepts about the functions of writing and skill in the process of writing. Further research is needed to determine how potential braille readers develop concepts about writing.

LITERACY ENVIRONMENTS

The home environment is important in providing opportunities for emergent literacy. Warren (1994) noted that a child's environment is the only one of three major areas of heterogeneity for children who are blind or visually impaired that can be manipulated; the other two are eye conditions and multiple handicaps.

Although studies on the home literacy environments of children who are blind or visually impaired are beginning to be reported (Craig, 1994; Dote-Kwan & Hughes, 1994; Rock, Head, Bradley, Whiteside, & Brisby, 1994), they have not yet definitively determined environments that support emergent literacy. One obvious reason for this situation is that the observation items were not devised to measure literacy environments specifically and most do not contain items that coincide with the components of emergent literacy. Craig (1996), which appears in this special issue of JVIB, has done research on home literacy environments for children who are visually impaired that yields information on children's scribbling, pretend writing, and participation in reading and writing activities in the home. Craig (1996) found that the amount and range of participation, as well as the material in the appropriate medium available in the home for the group of children whose parents expected them to be print readers, was greater than that for the roup of expected 9 braille readers. In addition, 72.2 percent of the group of children who were expected to be print readers engaged in scribbling activities (using pencils, markers, and paint brushes), compared to 27.6 percent of the group of expected braille readers (using braille writers or slate and stylus). Further research is needed to identify elements of the environment that are directly related to emergent literacy.

Although it is sometimes helpful to have information on general strategies that foster the development of literacy, it must be emphasized that the primary focus of emergent literacy is on the individual child as a learner, on what is meaningful to that child, and on the unique ways in which that child learns, rather than on sequences of materials or practices. The identification of strategies is outside the scope of this article, but general information on the development and learning of children who are blind or to visually impaired is available in the literature (for a more detailed discussion of the relationship of certain activities to emergent literacy, see Stratton & Wright, 1991).

Conclusion

Some areas of emergent literacy appear to be a natural fit with the ways children who are blind or visually impaired learn: First-hand experiences form the foundation for learning, meaningful language develops out of real experiences, and interaction with adults or other children supports learning. In addition, emergent literacy is individual-specific: The child's own learning forms the foundation for further learning. For the child who is blind or visually impaired, previous learning ensures that new learning is based on known concepts and familiar experiences. However, further research is needed to identify ways in which children who are blind or visually impaired develop the concept of a symbol and emerge into writing, as well as strategies for reading aloud to these children. In addition, research in all areas of the development of these children should be continually perused to identify new information related to emergent literacy.

When children who are blind or visually impaired have experienced the process of emergent literacy from an early age; constructed concepts about the environment, including the concepts of reading and writing; and developed a desire to read, they will approach actual bookreading with a positive attitude and a strong foundation for success. They will have taken a giant step toward reading for pleasure and toward becoming lifelong readers.

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Josephine M. Stratton, Ed.D., consultant on children who are blind or visually impaired, R.R. 1, Box 546, Norwich, NY 13815; E-mail: stratton@norwich. net.