                           CHAPTER 9
                                
                   BRAILLE TODAY AND TOMORROW
                                 
  1. THE BRAILLE CODE: EVENTS SINCE THE LONDON
       CONFERENCE (1988)
          International Council on English Braille
     Capitalization
  
  2. SOME ONGOING RESEARCH PROJECTS
     Longitudinal Study of Blind and Partially Sighted Children in
       Special Schools in England and Wales
          The Development of the New Test of Children's Reading Ability
          Braille Software Developed at the RCEVH
       
  3. OTHER EMBOSSED CODES
     The Moon Code
     The Fishburne Alphabet (1979)
  
  4. TECHNOLOGY AND THE BRAILLE CODE
     Aspirations of the 60's and 70's
     Increase in Variety and Purpose of New Inventions
       
  5. ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE USE OF BRAILLE
     Reasons for Disinclination to Learn Braille
     Edamples of Braille in Use Today
  
  
         1.   THE BRAILLE CODE: EVENTS SINCE THE
       LONDON CONFERENCE (1988)
       
  International Council on English Braille
  As agreed at the International Conference on English Braille, Grade 2,
  held in London in 1988, the International Council on English Braille was
  set up in the following year.  The Executive Council is made up of one
  member from each English-speaking country represented at the London
  conference, and its brief is to monitor the use of braille so that unagreed
  anomalies do not creep in, to review any necessary changes to the code
  as they become necessary, and to be involved in changes that will be
  necessary in order to contain computer use of braille.  The latter is urgent
  because there has been a tendency for printing houses to make their
  own rules in the absence of any central direction.
  
  In 1992 the Braille Authority of North American (BANA) appointed a sub-committee charged with defining the basic methodology for extending the
  basic literary code (English braille) as the first step towards a Unified
  Braille Code (UBC).  The word "Unified" may need an explanatory note
  to braille users in the UK.  In America there are three braille codes
  concerned with mathematics and science and these are incompatible for
  use in the literary braille code.  It was felt necessary to simplify these
  codes and bring them within one basic code.  In Britain, although there
  are special usages for mathematics and science, much more information
  is contained within the literary code.  Sub-committees were set up in
  America to deal with specific areas of code usage.  Committee 2,
  concerned with the literary code, was extended to include mathematics,
  computer science and other technical fields (Report by the Objective 2
  Committee, 1995).  The work of the committees was originally confined
  to consideration by BANA, but it was soon realised that such work should
  have international co-operation in the interests of braille uniformity
  among English-speaking peoples.  A brief introduction by Sullivan
  (December, 1995) was issued for "people who already read braille or
  transcribe English braille" showing, in some technical detail, what UBC
  may look like.  The aim has always been to keep as much of the present
  literary code as intact as possible.  Many discussions and decisions still
  have to be made.
  
  British Braille
  "British Braille: A Restatement of Standard English Braille" was compiled
  by the Braille Authority of the United Kingdom and published in 1992.
  
  Capitalization
  There was no reference to the use of capital letters in Braille's two
  "Procds" of 1829 and 1837 and when braille was introduced for use in
  Britain the BFBA must have considered their use superfluous.  Space
  had to be saved to reduce cost of production and the clutter of dots
  avoided in the interests of legibility.  Fewer official documents were in
  everyday use, particularly in braille, and the frequent use of acronyms is
  a modern trend.  The first public plea for their use in Britain was probably
  that made by Illingworth in a speech delivered at the Conference on
  Matters Relating to the Blind in 1902 (Illingworth, 1910, p.83).  The sign
  was introduced into the code after the 1905 conference and a Primer
  produced sometime after stated "capital letters, and consequently the
  Capital Sign, are not used in this Grade except in school books or when
  specially desired" (Douglas-Hamilton, undated, p.6).  One cannot help
  wondering why school children must learn their use if they are not likely
  to meet them afterwards.
  
  In America the first known book to use capital letters and full punctuation
  was printed in 1893 (report of the Board of Education, 1909, p.33). 
  There have been repeated requests from America since for Britain to use
  capitalization, but even as late as 1986 when BAUK issued a
  questionnaire on many aspects of braille usage, British braille users
  showed that the majority considered their use to be superfluous. 
  However, new inventions and closer co-operation as the world becomes
  smaller calls for changes.
  
  In 1992 BAUK received several requests to consider bringing the capital
  sign into full use in the UK and it was likely that once more, a decision
  would have to be made by Britain as a member of the ICEB.  BAUK
  makes the final decision regarding code changes in this country, but
  takes public opinion into account beforehand.  Poole, chairman of BAUK,
  issued an article (1994, 8-12) giving arguments for and against the
  proposal.  Among the arguments for the use of the capital were:
  1. Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa were now
       using the capital sign;
       2. recognition of capitals and their function have now become a part
       of the National Curriculum and their use is regarded as a criterion
       of literacy;
       3. knowledge of capitalization is necessary for those pupils and
       students who are learning typing skills.
       
  Poole added (p.9) "Learning the rules needs to be reinforced by constant
  confrontation with the capital letter in use, if people are to apply them
  correctly and spontaneously".
  
  The main arguments against were:
  1. both the Gill survey and the longer BAUK survey of 1986 showed
       that the braille-reading public did not want capitalization;
       2. unlike print, the braille capital sign occupies extra spaces.  Poole
       quoted 4.4% extra according to the Kederis count of 1965;
       3. the extra characters can cause clutter of dots which sometimes
       results in perceptual problems in reading.
       
  1,200 replies, including opinions from both visually impaired and sighted
  users of braille, were received in answer to a questionnaire prepared and
  issued by BAUK in 1995.  They were recorded and analysed by the
  Research Centre for the Education of the Visually Handicapped
  (RCEVH), University of Birmingham, and a report on the findings was
  sent to BAUK in 1996.  Questions on preference re: capitalization had
  previously been included in the BAUK survey of 1986 (see Chapter 6). 
  The 1986 replies from sighted users of braille were recorded but not
  published because of a flaw in the figures; some respondents had given
  options which they considered their pupils would prefer instead of giving
  their own opinions.  It is therefore only possible to compare results for
  touch readers.
  
  Some of the questions differed slightly but it is interesting to note the
  opinions in 1986 and 1996 regarding the two main options, (a) the capital
  letter sign should be used to show capital letters wherever they appear
  in print, and (b) there should be no change to the present practice.  The
  results for (a) by touch readers were 1986 14.57% and 1996 55.42%,
  and the figures for (b) were 1986 26.20% and 1996 27.77%.  It seems
  that those who think capitalization superfluous kept to their 1986 opinion,
  but the increase of 40.85% in the preference for capitalization by touch
  readers needs some explanation.  The swing towards capitalization came
  partly from a rejection of its use only in educational text books, and from
  the use of capitals for proper names, but not to begin sentences.  Also,
  22.79% in 1986 voted for capitals to be used only "to clear up confusion
  in the text" - a rather nebulous option that was not included in 1996.  The
  figures which include options from both touch and visual readers for 1996
  were (a) 46.25% and (b) 29.58%.  The over-riding reasons in favour of
  capitalization are probably due to more information being given to the
  general public before the questionnaire was issued (Poole, 1994, 8-12)
  and to awareness that computers have come to stay and the braille code
  would have to accommodate this new use of the code.  BAUK's decision
  to include full capitalization in the British braille code was ratified in July,
  1996, and this decision has now been made public (Poole, 1996, 12-13).
  
  2. SOME ONGOING RESEARCH PROJECTS
       
  Longitudinal Study of Blind and Partially Sighted Children in
  Special Schools in England and Wales
  Being without the major sense of sight results in a child needing to
  develop strategies for learning using the remaining senses.  To assess
  the problems and the achievements it is first necessary to know such
  factors as the type of visual defect and the age of onset.
  
  In 1973, the RCEVH at Birmingham, under the direction of Dr M.J. Tobin,
  began "a longitudinal investigation into various aspects of cognitive
  development and school achievement in children registered as blind or
  partially sighted".  This was the first such study.  120 subjects were
  included from eight schools for the blind and nine for partially sighted
  children.  All the subjects became five during the school year 1973-1974
  and they have been tested at regular intervals until the age of 18, the
  tests involving such factors as intelligence, manual dexterity, tactual
  perception and braille reading.  These factors inter-relate as the child
  develops so that, when the onerous task of treating the statistics is
  completed, a much clearer picture should emerge of development stages
  in blind and partially sighted children as sub-groups but also, and
  importantly, of the development of individuals.  The study should have
  provided valuable basic information for psychologists, teachers, social
  workers, and parents.
  
  Testing for braille reading was carried out using the three standardized
  tests, viz: Tooze Braille Speed Test (1962), Lorimer Braille Recognition
  Test (1962), and the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability, adapted for use
  with blind children, (1972).  These tests have been described in some
  detail in Chapter 8.  There are parallel versions of the Neale test so it
  was possible to test the children for accuracy, comprehension and rate
  of reading at three regular intervals from when the child started reading
  until the age of approximately 11 years.
  
  The Development of a New Test of Children's Braille Reading
  Ability
  The narratives in the Lorimer adaptation into braille (1977) of the original
  Neale Analysis Test for sighted children (1958) gradually became out-of-date and it was necessary to standardize a new test on a current
  population of children of school age as "it would be impossible to obtain
  the two or three sufficiently large samples required for the trials and final
  standardization of an original test" (Lorimer, J., 1977, p.3).  It was
  decided, eventually, that the Neale Analysis (1958) should be used
  again, but modifications were likely to be needed.  Already the NFER
  Publishing Company had approved some slight changes in the narratives
  to bring them up-to-date, but it was felt necessary to test the parallel
  forms in more detail to assess the contraction difficulty at each stage. 
  Lorimer's use of introductory sentences instead of pictures will also be
  assessed (Greaney, Arter, Hill, Mason, McCall, Stone, and Tobin, 1994).
  
  Information gathering has now been completed and normative data for
  two parallel forms have been produced.  Further analysis is currently
  being undertaken into the kinds and frequencies of braille errors. 
  Eventually it is proposed that there shall be a teachers' handbook and
  when this is available workshops will be arranged to train teachers and
  psychologists how to administer and score the test and to interpret the
  findings (Director's Twenty-seventh Annual Report, RCEVH, 1996, p.12).
  
    Braille Software Developed at the RCEVH
  During the early 1980's the following braille software was developed at
  the RCEVH for the BBC computer, which was used in most schools at
  that time.  The programmes have now been converted for use also in the
  IBM compatible machines.  The following are a selection.
  
  Talking Braille Cell.  For the visually impaired who already have some
  knowledge of braille.  It enables the user to practise their braille without
  needing the constant attention of the teacher.  The visually impaired
  person can use the six keys on the keyboard which emulate a Perkins
  Brailler.  It is a speech programme, so a speech synthesizer would be
  needed.
  
  Talking Transcribe.  For visually impaired adults who are learning braille. 
  This programme is designed to test the user when transcribing from print
  to Grade 2 braille.  Immediate feedback is given in speech so a speech
  synthesizer is required.
  
  Braille to Test.  For visually impaired people who need to have their
  braille put into print for sighted colleagues.  The six keys on the keyboard
  emulate a Perkins Brailler.
  
  With the use of the foregoing equipment, the visually impaired person
  can develop the very necessary independence which is missing to a
  degree by so many, as well as being of help at school, at the workplace,
  and, if required, in home circumstances.
  
         3.   OTHER EMBOSSED CODES
       
  The Moon Code
  The code devised by Dr Moon in 1847 (see Chapter 3) became popular
  for adult use during his lifetime and after his death his daughter took over
  responsibility for production.  Its popularity was due to the comparatively
  clear outline and distinctive shapes of the characters which those with
  poorer sensitivity of touch found easier to recognise than braille. 
  However, in "Blind and partially sighted adults in Britain: The RNIB
  Survey, Volume 1" (Bruce, McKennell, Walker, 1992, 10-11), it was
  shown that "more than 9 in 10 visually impaired people had heard of
  braille while Moon was known by fewer than 1 in 10".  It was suggested
  that among the elderly registrably blind people, "the penetration and
  quality of teaching must be increased and the supply of relevant
  magazines and books to learners and readers improved".
  
  In 1992, a project named "Moon as a route to literacy" was launched by
  the RNIB with the aim of investigating "the potential of Moon as a tactile
  code for children with a visual impairment and additional difficulties".  A
  series of books and tapes were made and Bozic, then on the staff of the
  RCEVH, produced a "SoundBook" demonstrating how a range of
  interesting sounds could be incorporated for use with the Moon Reading
  Scheme (Moon Report, Issue 1, January, 1993).  During discussion at
  the Moon Conference held in December, 1992, anecdotal evidence was
  given suggesting that Moon might be a stepping stone to braille for some
  learners.
  
  One of the chief problems in the use of Moon is the lack of an efficient
  writing machine.  At the request of the RNIB, the RCEVH spent a year
  evaluating new prototypes.  "Using his right index finger in a wire loop,
  the operator "draws" the Moon symbol on a small plate or plaque which
  contains grooves and other guide-marks to help him draw the curves and
  straight lines that constitute the letters of the Moon system".  As the
  shape is drawn, a writing mechanism inscribes its replica, but smaller in
  size, onto paper under the plate.  It was considered that with practice,
  writers could master reading and writing in Grade 2 Moon.  The device
  was regarded as "the most promising mechanical advance in the 140-year history of the Moon system" (Tobin and Hill, 1984, p.176).
  
  The Fishburne Alphabet (1979)
  The 26 letters of the Fishburne alphabet are signs on rectangular
  backgrounds similar to dominoes.  They are best explained in a diagram.
  
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
   The Fishburne Alphabet (Newman and Hall, 1986, p.6)
                            
                             The system does not appear to be well known, but is intended for use by
  those who would find braille difficult, both tactually and mentally.  Its use
  was suggested as being an alternative to braille for labelling and possibly
  as a preliminary to learning braille.  It was suggested that success with
  an easier tactile code might give the necessary confidence to encourage
  a start with learning braille.
  
  4. TECHNOLOGY AND THE BRAILLE CODE
       
  Aspirations of the 60's and 70's
  From when the braille code became established as the means to literacy
  for the visually handicapped, in both America and Great Britain, its
  importance was recognised by organisations and individuals.  However,
  according to Clark (1979, p.5) the situation in America began to change. 
  The cause was "benign neglect" for several reasons, including the advent
  of talking books and synthetic speech, and the increased cost of braille
  production.  Clark added that "there are more persons with low vision
  who do not require braille, more elderly who do not seem to want it, and
  more adults who do not use it" (ibid., p.5).
  
  Increase in Variety and Purpose of New Inventions
  One solution was technical innovation.  Talking books provide a real
  service, but they provide passive listening.  Machines using synthetic
  speech also have their place, but, because of low redundancy compared
  with normal speech, listening brings fatigue after a period.  In the 60's
  and 70's when more money was available for research and the problem
  of the decline in braille readership was first being realised, two paths
  were followed in an attempt to remediate the situation.
  
  More and cheaper production was necessary with a closer co-operation
  between what was being produced and what was required.  Indeed, it
  was a dream that braille books would become so easy to produce that
  supply and demand would no longer be a problem, and, for example, text
  books for students would no longer arrive after their need was over.  At
  the same time technological advances meant that paperless braille would
  become a possibility.  Instead of always using embossed manila paper,
  portable machines would eventually provide a variety of options giving
  input, output, and speech.  One of the first was the VersaBraille computer
  which had a keyboard with six keys and a space bar similar in use to the
  Perkins brailler and the storage capacity was apprximately 400 pages
  held in an audio cassette.  "The braille display consists of a metal plate
  with 120 holes spaced for 20 braille cells.  Each hole has a metal pin
  which can be raised or lowered by mechanical action" and the display
  can then be read as in normal paper braille.  Many electrical devices
  have been developed since.  Both technical displays and embossed
  paper are useful for their own particular purposes, but it was not
  sufficiently understood at first that, for some, talking books, the use of
  tape, and reading machines which could convert print to speech might
  take over, or at least provide the excuse not to spend the time and effort
  to learn braille.  When new inventions appear which are intended to
  improve the acquisition of literacy for the visually handicapped, they are
  often much publicised and greeted warmly by the general public. 
  Unfortunately, few stop to realise that such inventions are often too
  expensive for individual use, often for several years, although they could
  eventually find a place in the job situation.
  
  5. ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE USE OF BRAILLE
       
  Reasons for Disinclination to Learn Braille
  The coming of technology is not the sole cause for the lack of motivation
  by some visually impaired people to learn and use braille.  It can be
  caused by a variety of factors, differing according to circumstances.
  
  In Chapter 1, reference was made to attitudes towards visually impaired
  people.  In spite of a change in attitude such people are still not always
  accepted, and by some are regarded in some way as being inferior. 
  Fortunately this is not so common as in the past, but the individual blind
  person may also be lacking in confidence because a certain amount of
  dependence on sighted help is inevitable.  Some do not wish to admit
  this, and the result may be a determination not to be labelled as blind. 
  Learning braille may seem to underlie this attitude, similar to some blind
  individual's dislike of using a white stick.
  
  Another problem is the lack of resources for learning braille and even a
  determination by some sighted people to deny such rights because of
  effort required by themselves.  It is not always the fault of the reluctant
  teacher.  In Britain a social service used to be visits by Home Teachers
  of the Bind who were trained in braille teaching.  When social workers
  became generic there was little time or inclination to learn and teach
  braille, especially if there were more urgent demands on time.  The RNIB
  has recently compiled a list of braille users willing to teach others.  There
  was a ready response but now the Institution must arrange for the would-be teachers to be adequately trained.  Now that children are mostly
  integrated into sighted schools, both here and in America, less resources
  and teaching time are available for braille reading, which succeeds best
  if tuition can be  little and often'.
  
  Unfortunately, braille is publicised as being difficult to learn, particularly
  by those unwilling to teach.  It is more difficult than print reading, but
  many children take it in their stride as they progress through school, and
  many adults who have learned, wonder how they would have managed
  without.  To end this work, it seems appropriate for some users of braille
  to give their own opinions.  One extract is from a published journal and
  the other contributors have all given permission for their names to be
  included.
  
  Examples of Braille in Use Today
  Mary Hallam, retired physiotherapist.
     "I have used it since the age of six.  I used braille extensively
       throughout my school days.  Finally, I obtained sufficient
       qualifications in the usual public exams to gain a place in the RNIB
       School of Physiotherapy.  Here again I used braille during my
       studies for reading and for keeping my own personal patients'
       case notes.  This went on throughout my career of approximately
       30 years.  At home I keep a very good filing system in braille for
       business and domestic use, also a card index for addresses and
       phone numbers.  All our physiotherapy machines and domestic
       appliances have embossed markings on them.  All through the
       years I have collected recipes which I have put into braille if they
       were not already brailled, for which my family were very
       appreciative.  This private use of braille has enabled me to feel
       very independent, and I have felt able to keep up with my friends
       and colleagues all my life."
       
       Mary Thomas, retired shorthand typist.
     "I learnt braille at school and then became a shorthand typist for
       10 years until I had to retire on health grounds.  At home I braille
       messages and use the braille telephone directory.  I enjoy reading. 
       I read magazines and read approximately five volumes of braille
       a month.  I wouldn't be without braille."
       
       Michael Hodgson, post-graduate student.
          I began to learn braille at the age of 16 shortly after losing my eye-sight.  Intellectually, the learning process was not so difficult;
       mastering the patterns of various contractions, etc., the practical
       element of relating what the mind understood - or imagined it
       understood - to the clumsy sensibilities of finger-tip on page was
       quite another matter, and I found my slowness at learning how to
       read very frustrating.  Fourteen years later I still seldom read
       anything of much length from beginning to end all at once.  I am
       reluctant for instance to begin anything much in excess of 10 or
       perhaps 12 pages.  Braille does, however, play an indispensable
       part in my life and as a student it would be impossible for me to
       work at all without it.  Even if I were to be a more confident user of
       the medium, one undaunted by the prospect of reading
       innumerable volumes - which I am not - my chosen discipline,
       philosophy, is not well provided for in terms of braille publications
       and for this I rely more on recorded material.  I use braille every
       day, however, to write my own notes for later transcription into
       print and without braille labels the recorded text necessary to my
       research - some 700 tapes at present - would be inaccessible.  I
       cannot imagine anything could adequately replace it."
       
       Terry Bullingham, public relations officer for St. Dunstan's.
          "I lost my sight suddenly and totally during the Falklands war of
       1982 and I am pleased to say that braille played a significant part
       in my subsequent rehabilitation.  I have often heard people say
       that they don't need braille nowadays with talking books and
       computers.  Naturally, I use computer technology and taped
       material which I appreciate.  Currently, I use braille in the following
       situations: my bedside novel is always in braille; the notes I use as
       a public speaker are in braille; a lot of my correspondence is in
       braille, particularly to visually impaired friends; my bank
       statements and telephone bills are in braille; my long-playing
       records, compact discs and discs as well on open reel tapes, are
       all labelled in braille as well as their respective catalogues; the
       front panel of the microwave oven has braille labels; additionally,
       I am a  Meccano' enthusiast and braille is absolutely essential in
       labelling the various tins containing the components.  Contrary to
       the statement, therefore, braille is still very much an essential part
       of my life.  There is nothing nicer than taking one's book from the
       bedside table, drawing it under the covers into the warmth, and
       reading without disturbing one's spouse."
       
       David Blunkett, MP.
          "With all its quirks and frustrations, braille is essential.  Without it,
       it would be very difficult for me to do my job.  I use it for making
       notes, for preparing speeches - where I use headline phrases and
       note form, rather than following a detailed text - and, of course, for
       being able to refer directly to quotations or other detailed text that
       needs to be accurately repeated.
          I enjoy reading books very much, although I get less time than I
       would wish to be able to do this.  To me, braille is the natural
       corollary of print and therefore an essential tool in everyday life,
       whether in work, recreation or normal family activity.  For me, the
       availability of quotes, briefing notes or documents that must be
       held in durable form is crucial in doing my job, both as an MP and
       as a Front Bench representative of the Labour Party.  The
       availability of braille transcription through computer software and
       using a braille embosser makes an enormous difference.  Staff
       can produce braille without having to know braille, and documents
       on disc can be transcribed with the minimum of fuss. 
       Configurating braille material still remains a problem, as does the
       type of braille that is available in software packages, but the
       tremendous advantages massively outweigh the difficulties."
       
         Pedro Zurita, Secretary General of the World Blind Union.  ("The World
  Blind", July 1994 - March 1995, No.12, p.6, English translation).
     "...all this technical paraphernalia does not substitute braille, but
       rather, on the contrary, it complements and even multiples its
       usefulness."
          "He truly wishes that braille would cease to be an innocent victim,
       whose demise is announced every time a new discovery is made. 
       He cannot help but think how much easier the work would be of
       the Mongolian mathematician he met who was told upon losing his
       sight, that it was not worth it to learn braille.  And he would like to
       provide the suitable tools to those children he saw on more than
       one occasion in African schools copying their own books with
       writing frames.  And he loudly proclaims that reading and writing
       braille is in no way inferior to any other means of accessing
       information, and therefore, children and adults with serious visual
       impairments who are unable to effectively use visual media, must
       not be deprived of the opportunity to learn to read with their
       fingertips on the basis of pedagogical prejudices.  Braille is
       wondrous and absolutely innocent and, after all, what is important
       is not whether information and knowledge reach us through our
       fingers or through our eyes, but rather what we do with them with
       our hearts and minds."
       
  These extracts show something of the variety of needs which knowledge
  of the braille code can help to fulfil, for it may provide a necessary
  ingredient for success at work, it can bring organisation in the home, and
  provide pleasure in some leisure time pursuits.  This is a far cry from the
  days of its invention when it was first used for taking notes in the
  classroom.  As this thesis has attempted to reveal, braille has both a
  history and a future.
  
  